CAMPING TIPS AND KNOW HOW IN SURVIVAL
            UNDER ALL CLIMATES AND CONDITIONS

SPECIAL NOTE FROM THE CO-AUTHOR, THE FOLLOWING ARE NOTES ON HOW
TO BEST MAKE CAMP, THIS WORK IS NOT FINISHED SO BARE WITH ME.
Plenty more informations coming up as soon as I can do it.

I WILL UPLOAD THE FINAL RESULT AS SOON AS I CAN MEANWHILE THERE
ARE PLENTY OF GOOD TIPS WHICH YOU STILL CAN USE. THANKS!

P/S IF YOU HAVE ANY GOOD TIPS SEND THEM ALONG TO MY E-MAIL!
			richard@io.org




"A human being should be able to change a diaper, plan an
invasion, butcher a hog, conn a ship, design a building, write a
sonnet, balance Accounts, build a wall, set a bone, comfort the
dying, take orders, give orders, cooperate, act alone, solve
equations, analyze a new problem, pitch manure, program a
computer, cook a tasty meal, fight efficiently, die gallantly.
Specialization is for insects."  Robert Heinlein
 
WATER WARNING: 

Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation are
water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE rigorously
avoided.

SO MAKE SURE YOU BOIL IT FOR 10 MINUTES.

JUST MOISTENING YOUR LIPS WITH 1 DROP OF IMPURE WATER WILL AT THE
LEAST SO SICKEN YOU TO THE POINT WHERE YOU CAN'T TRAVEL!

ORGANISING THE CAMP:

In many survival situations there will already be someone in a
position of responsibility who will head the organization of the
camp and lead the development of survival plans.

If no established command structure exists among a group of
survivors, an organized committee should be established and
individuals nominated & elected with particular responsibilities
perhaps on a rational basis if it is a large group and rescue
does not come quickly.

Experience MUST BE pooled & immediate steps taken to discover
what skills individuals can contribute.

A roasta is ESSENTIAL for such daily chores as collecting
firewood & water, foraging, cooking, latrine digging and
maintenance tasks, and for hunting and trapping.

In a group of survivors there may be all kinds of people of
different ages and experience. People will have varied skills and
enjoy doing different tasks.

Everyone who is fit and able should take their turn at the
unpleasant tasks, unless their skills are so much in demand that
it would be a waste of their abilities.

But individual should do what they are good at, and be encouraged
to develop skills for which they show an aptitude.

Not only should everyone do their fair share but keeping busy
eliminates boredom and keeps up morale.

Anyone who is sick or injured gets the lightest jobs and is best
employed around camp until they have recovered

In a group there should ALWAYS be someone in camp, and they
should be able enough to operate the signals should a search
aircraft appear.

If you have sufficient numbers do NOT venture from the camp in
less than pairs.

Except in the desert, where the day will be largely spent
sheltering from the sun and early mornings & evenings are the
times for activity, daytime is likely to be fully occupied.

Evening however, may drag if not occupied by hunting. A gathering
around the camp fire will help establish a pattern and provide a
sense of discipline and normality.

It will give an opportunity to debrief on the day's events, to
plan for tomorrow and to discuss new strategies.

Music can be a great morale booster. If no instruments were
carried or survived, simple ones such as percussion or pan-pipes
can be easily improvised, and everyone can sing after a fashion.

Sing-songs, dancing, charades, quizzes and story-telling and even
praying all have their place and you may have talents that can
create more elaborate entertainment.

For private recreation any books will be invaluable particularly
this one and you can make pieces for board games such as draughts
and chess, using stones for counters or carving simple playing
pieces.

Even the lone survivor requires discipline and order. A regular
routine will help morale and exactly the same care MUST BE taken
to ensure that the camp is kept in good order.

At first there may be so much to do that the individual is too
tired to think of recreation, but boredom is even more DANGEROUS
for a person on its own an objective should be set each day
whether practical or for amusement.

CAMP HYGIENE:

Keeping healthy is an important factor for survival, so strict
hygiene should be practiced, not only personally but in the
planning and running of a camp.

Rubbish and latrines MUST BE kept away from the camp to reduce
the threat from flies.

Since most of the common diseases in a survival situation are
water-born, pollution of drinking water MUST BE RIGOROUSLY
AVOIDED.

Food scraps and other rubbish should be burned in the fire if
possible.

CAMP LAYOUT:

Select sites for all camp activities so that they do not
interfere with each other or pollute the living and cooking even
"cook-King" areas.

If you are camped by a river or stream, fix specific sections for
activities & keep to them.

Latrines should be dug downhill of the camp and away from the
water supply so that there is NO possible risk of seepage
polluting either.

ACTIVITY AREAS:

Establish a water point from which drinking water will be
collected and ensure that No one wash, cleans pots, scrubs
clothes or otherwise uses the stream upstream of this point.

Downstream choose a wash point for personal ablutions and clothes
washing and farther downstream of that select a place to be used
for cleaning cooking utensils.

REMEMBER: NEVER URINATE OR DEFECATE IN OR NEAR YOU WATER SUPPLY.

LATRINES AND RUBBISH DISPOSAL:

Latrines and rubbish disposal should be well away from the camp
and preferably downwind.

But not so far away that is inconvenient and people are tempted
to go elsewhere. If necessary cut a track to it to make access
easier.

It is important that proper latrines be established, even for the
lone survivor. With a group separate latrines for the sexes may
make a mixed group feel more comfortable and as much privacy as
possible should be provided.

Rubbish, after checking that it really has no USEFUL value,
should be burned, and what cannot be burned should be buried.

Even if you have it, do not use disinfectant in a latrine. Lime
or disinfectant would kill the USEFUL bacteria that break down
and then it will start smelling! After defecating cover the shit
with earth. Add small amounts of water that will promote the
bacteria.

Make a latrine cover to keep out flies and REMEMBER ALWAYS to
replace it, or flies that have walked all over shit may walk all
over your food, & start a cycle of infection.

If, after a time, a latrine starts to smell, dig a new one. Fill
in the old latrine. Build a new seat and burn old timbers &
covers.

DEEP TRENCH LATRINE:

Dig a trench about 1.25m (4ft) deep and 45cm (18in) wide. Build
up the sides with logs or rocks and earth to make a comfortable
sitting height, sealing the gaps between them.

Lay logs across to leave only a hole for use or (several if you
are a large group and making a communal latrine).

Empty wood ash on the logs to make a seal. It will also deter
flies. Make a lid of smaller wood to cover the opening (A*) or
use a large flat rock or a large leaf weighted down with stones. 

ALWAYS REMEMBER to replace it.

URINAL:

Dig a pit about 60cm (2ft) deep. Three-quarters fill it with a
large stone and then top up with earth, with a cone made from
bark set into it as a funnel. Site it close enough to the camp to
ensure that people bother to use it.

INCINERATOR:

If there is too much waste for the camp fire to burn, make a
separate fire in the latrine area. If a large can is available
use it as an incinerator. Bury any unburned refuse in a garbage
pit.

CAMP DISCIPLINE:

Do not prepare game in camp: bleed, gut and skin on the trap
line.

This attracts game to the traps where you want them, not into
your camp. Keep food  covered and off the ground. If kept in
trees MAKE SURE it is proof from tree-dwelling animals.

Replace lids on water bottles and containers IMMEDIATELY after
using them. Stow spare clothing and equipment in your shelter. Do
not leave it lying where it can get wet or burned.

Have a place for everything & keep things tidy. A tree for mess
tins & cooking utensils-hook them on twigs and branches, a place
for mugs and spoons & keep everything off the ground. Fix a box
as cupboard on a tree trunk.

NEVER LEAVE THE FIRE UNATTENDED

SOAP:

Washing with soap removes natural oils, leaving the skin less
waterproof and more prone to attack by germs. In survival
circumstances it is a mistake to wash with soap too often.

However, soap is the most widely used antiseptic, better than
many others, such as iodine, which destroy body tissue as well as
germs.

It is ideal for scrubbing hands before administering first-aid
for wounds. Save supplies for this.

SOAP MAKING: *

Two ingredients-an oil and alkali- are needed to make soap. The
oil can be animal fat (including fish) or vegetable but not
mineral. The alkali can be produced by burning wood or seaweed to
produce ash.

METHOD: *

Wash ash with water. Strain and boil with the oil. Simmer until
excess liquid are evaporated and allow to cool.

This soap will clean the skin but it is not antiseptic. Adding
Horseradish root or pine resin to the brew will make it
antiseptic.

Experiment will be necessary to get the balance in the mixture
right. Start with more oil than alkali because too much alkali
will dry the skin, leaving it sore.

SEATS:

NEVER SEAT ON DAMP GROUND!

Use something, even if it is only a log. If there is no
ready-made seat available, lash together a couple of low A-frame
support and rest another bough across them. Make a simple box
frame with cross-members linking legs from short lengths of wood.

TO MAKE A SEAT:

Weave vines or twine back and forth or sew on a piece of canvas
or plastic with thongs. Failing these, try a flat piece of wood
or metal laid across, or thin springy saplings lashed to the
frame and interwoven.

CAMP CHAIR: 

A comfy camp chair can be made in 10-15 min. and will give hours
of comfort. Select 2 stout forked sticks 4 feet long and 3 inches
thick.

The forks MUST BE at wide angle and cut with the straighter of
the 2 prongs about 9 to 10 inches long and the other wide angled
prong about 12 to 15 inches.

Cut another stout forked stick about 4 feet in length and leave
the prongs of this sufficiently long to hold the 2 sticks you
have cut before.

SHOWING THE 3 MAIN STICKS REQUIRED FOR CAMP CHAIR: 

Across the seat portion of the chair lash straight sticks about
an inch thick & continue these up the back of the chair.

On the seat portion they MUST BE close together but on the back
they can be spaced 2 or 3 inches apart.

SHOWING THE FRAMEWORK OF A CHAIR USING HOOKED STICKS:

There may be difficulties in finding 2 sticks with wide angled
prongs in which case you can make your chair by using 2 hooked
stakes.

The crotch of the hook should be 8 inches above the end  of the
stick and the sticks themselves should be about 3 feet 6 inches
long.

2 poles each about 5 feet long are laid one each through the
hooked portion of the sticks that have their upper ends lashed
together.

These 2 poles are lashed together behind the chair and a forked
pole leading from the upper end where the hooked stakes are
lashed comes back to these 2 side poles and is lashed again. This
gives you the framework for your chair.

A good bushman makes himself comfy wherever he may be. The simple
seat of course is either to roll up a log or select a site where
a fallen tree will serve you. Also you can use a few stones to
build up a platform and between these you can lay 2 or 3 poles
for your seat.

CAMP SEAT:

A very comfy fireside camp seat can be made by driving 2 short
stakes into the ground so that the forks are pointing outward
that is away from the opposite stake.

The bottom of the forks should be from 8 to 10 inches above the
ground level. 2 back forked stakes about 3 feet 6 inches long are
driven into the ground 15 to 18 inches behind these 2 short
stakes.

These back stakes should be driven in on a slight angle, leaning
away from the 2 forward forks. The forks of the rear stakes
should point outward.

Both short and long stakes should be not less than 2 inches thick
and the fork at least 1 and half inch thick.

The short stakes should be at a convenient distance from the
fireplace anything from 3 to 6 feet depending upon the size fire
you usually build.

Cut 2 cross bars each about 3 inches thick and cut nicks in these
so they fit snugly in place in the forks & connect front & rear
forks.

Length ways lay straight smooth sticks, 1 to 2 inches thick.
These MUST BE close together. Along the back that is to the tall
stakes, lash similar sticks from 2 to 3 inches apart.

This makes an excellent fireside camp seat and the comfort it
gives well repays the 1/2 hour it took to build.

CAMP BEDS 10 MINUTES: 

A sound night's rest is worth 10 min toil. Time spent in making a
camp bed that will keep you both comfy and warm are time well
spent even for Rambo. Cut 2 poles 6 to 7 inches thick & about 7
feet long.

Lay these parallel to each other 3 feet apart & to prevent them
from rolling put pegs at head and foot, driven well into the
ground with about a foot of the peg above the pole.

Cut about 20 or 30 straight strong sticks 3 and half feet long
and lay these every 4 inches across the 2 poles. Now on top of
these cross sticks place 2 poles 3 to 4 inches thick and 7 feet
long.

They should lie against the peg driven in to hold the 2 bed poles
secure. At the head end of the bed lay about 6 cross sticks on
top of these last 2 poles.

Now cut green brushwood, fern or waste green stuff such as sucker
growth or weedy bushy material and put this so that the main
stalks are length ways along the bed.

Pile it high between the top poles and lying across the cross
sticks. The resulting bed will be as springy & comfy as any you
have ever slept in your life.

TRAVOIS: 

For bringing fuel or your prepared kill back to camp, or for
other loads a travois will work if the ground is fairly smooth-it
will not on rough and boulder strewn terrain.

Choose two boughs with some spring to them and lash cross-piece
as for the ladder. Add additional struts to provide closer
support.

Pull the load on its runners like a sled. If you are pulling
loads over a short distance, lash the runners to come to a single
grip (*A) For a larger version leave the last space clear or fit
leather or fabric shoulder straps to haul it by (*B).

SHOWING THE FRAMEWORK WITH TABLE TOP POLES AND SEAT POLES: 

For the framework select 2 forked stakes at least 3 inches thick
& 4 to 5 inches long. The length depends upon the soil and how
far you will have to drive the stakes into the ground to make
them quite secure.

The lower end of each stake is sharpened and the head beveled.
The first stake should be driven well into the earth so that the
lowest part of the crotch of the fork is 3 feet above the ground.

The prong of the fork should be pointing out from the length you
want your table say from 4 to 7 feet and drive in the other stake
with its prong also pointing outward that is away from the first
stake.

This stake MUST also be driven the same depth into the ground as
the first stake. Cut 4 strong straight stakes 4 feet 6 to 5 feet
in length and at least 2 1/2 inches thick.

Place these with one end in the crotch of the forks and at right
angles to the line of the forked stakes.

Note where the sticks cross each other in the forks and scarf out
cuts in each so that the 2 will nest together in the crotch.

These side poles carry the table poles and the seat poles so they
MUST seat securely in the forks.

On to these side poles and about 2 feet above ground level 2
strong poles 2 inches thick are securely lashed.

These poles are for the table and later straight sticks are laced
side by side across these poles for the actual table top. 15
inches above the ground level 2 very strong poles 3 inches thick
and 7 to 8 feet in length are lashed.

These lashings MUST BE very tight to make these 2 poles secure to
the 2 side poles and also to the forked stakes you first drove
into the ground. These poles serve both as a bracing to carry the
seat.

Your table is now ready for finishing. Cut short straight sticks
for the top. You will need 8 sticks for every foot in length of
table top.

The seat-sticks at least 3 to 4 inches thick are cut 1 foot
longer than the length of the table.

You will need at least 3 of these seat sticks for each side. They
are not lashed to the cross poles but allowed to lie on them so
that the distance of the seat from the table can be adjusted by
either pulling or pushing them in.

SHOWING HOW TO BRACE YOUR TABLE IF THE GROUND IS SOFT OR SANDY: 

If the ground is soft or loose sand your table will require
bracing and this can be done simply by 2 diagonal braces from the
table level of each of the forked stakes to the foot of the
other. Where the bracing cross they should be lashed.

An alternative is to cut 2 five foot forks of the stakes in the
ground. Their own butts MUST BE firmly seated on the ground &
held from slipping by a stout peg driven well in the ground.

This type of structure is recommended for a portable table. When
securely lashed the whole table is EXTREMELY strong. A fly thrown
over the top bar can be used to give shade.

OTHER TYPE CAMP TABLE DRY COUNTRY:

It is simply to dig 2 trenches, 2 or 3 feet apart on their inside
edges and at least 10 to 12 inches deep.

Only suitable when earth is clay or firm enough to be dug in
clean sods. Sods are used to give height to the seat.

STICK HAMMOCK:

A camp loom is set up and the hammock is woven using vines,
twisted bark fibbers, grass rope etc. for the weaving and sticks
about 1 inch thick for the cross parts. The hammock should be at
least 3 feet wide by 7 feet long.

The end 2 spreaders should be 2 inches thick & from these short
lengths of rope are brought to the central rope by means of which
the hammock is suspended.

Ropes from each of the 4 corners will also serve to suspend the
hammock. A grass mattress also woven on the camp loom makes an
excellent cover for the hammock.

CAMP LOOM:

2 stout forked stakes about 2 inches thick are cut and driven
into the ground with their lower prongs 3 feet above the ground
and facing away from the direction you wish to work.

The distance between the stakes should be at least 6 inches wider
than the widest article you want to weave. Across the forks a
cross bar about one inch thick is laid. It is advisable to trim
this cross bar of twigs and roughness and it should be fairly
strong.

8 or 9 feet from the cross bar and on the side farthest from the
prongs a row of straight smooth stakes each about 4 feet long is
driven into the ground so that there are about 2 inches between
the centers of the stakes.

These stakes should be trimmed of any side twigs or roughness. A
weaving bar a few inches longer than the width of the row of
stakes is cut and laid on the ground parallel and about 6 inches
in front of this row of stakes. Your camp loom is now ready to be
set up for a weaving.

An alternative to the row of stakes & a considerable improvement
if a situation is available is to select a site where 2 trees are
at a convenient distance apart.

At ground level and about 7 feet above the ground, 2 stout cross
bars, 2 inches thick are lashed to the tree trunks and to these
crossbars a series of smooth vertical sticks are lashed at the
top & bottom. These sticks are about 2 inches apart at centers.

TO WEAVE ON CAMP LOOM: 

Lengths of the weaving material are tied to the stakes are shown
brought back over the crossbars & then forward & between the
stakes & then tied to the weaving bar in front of the row of
stakes (this is the  "weft" of your weaving).

A ball of material is tied to the outside strand and then passed
between the 2 rows of strands (this is the warp) with the weaving
bar lying on the ground.

The weaving bar is lifted above the weft and the ball returned
again between the weft threads. Repeat by alternatively lifting
and lowering the weaving bar.

CAMP MATTRESS OR STICK HAMMOCK:
 
The weft or long strands are set up as for weaving, but instead
of warp (cross strands) tufts of grass, fern or other material or
sticks for a stick hammock are passed between the weft.

In weaving a camp mattress it is advisable to put in a warp tie
every second or third lift. This binds the sides and prevents the
outside weft strands spreading.

Strands of sun dried grass, loosely spun can be woven into a
covering for a camp bed if you are without blanket.

When weaving for this purpose MAKE SURE that the warp strands are
pushed closely up to each other.

Do not try and make a camp blanket too heavy. It is far better to
make 2 light grass covering than one heavy one since it is a
number of layers rather than extreme thickness of 1 layer which
keeps you warm.

WEAVING A CAMP HAMMOCK: 

Normally a hammock is made by using the netting tie and netting
needle, but a serviceable hammock can be woven on the camp loom
from bush materials.

The ball of warp is passed around the weft threads to from an
overhand knot on the lower lay of the weft and these knots pulled
tights make the weaving secure.

LADDER:

Food collecting, shelter building, trap setting and a whole lot
of other task will be easier with a ladder. This one is easily
made by lashing cross-piece to two long poles. Because these are
set an angle, not parallel, the rungs will not be able to slip
down.

BUSH LADDER:

Easily made. Select 2 long straight poles cut to equal length.
Lash the thin ends together.

Spread the butts or thick ends so that they are about 2 1/2 to 3
feet apart. To these lash the rungs & MAKE CERTAIN that the
lashings are good and tight. Lashing the rungs is made easier if
you lift the butts on to a log or a couple of big stones.

It will be easier to pass the lashing material under the poles.
MAKE SURE that the top end is narrower than the bottom end, it is
more solid that way.

SINGLE LADDER ROPE: 

Cut as many hard wood chocks 1 1/2 to 2 inches thick as you
require for you ladder. These are placed every 15 to 18 inches
apart. The chocks should be about 4 inches across and can be cut
from either square or round timber.

Bore a hole through the center of each chock. This hole should
not be more than 1/8 inch larger than the diameter of the rope.

Thread the rope through the holes in the chocks and then starting
at one end open the strand of the rope and slip in a 1/2 inch
thick hard wood peg about 3 inches long.

Bind the rope below the peg. Slide the chock down and measure off
the distance to the next step.

EMERGENCY LAMP: 

A CANDLE HOLDER FROM A BOTTLE:

Open flame is DANGEROUS in a tent, so cut off the base of a clear
glass bottle. A very easy way to cut the glass cleanly is to heat
a piece of thin wire to red hot.

Bend this around the bottle where you want to cut it
alternatively tie a piece of grease-soaked string round the
bottle and burn it.

Then when the hot wire or burning string is around the bottle,
immerse the bottle in cold water. The glass will break off evenly
at the place where the wire or string encircled it.

CAMP BROOM: 

A bundle of green straight sticks each not much thicker than a
match stick is collected and bound tightly to a central handle,
the business end of the broom is then trimmed off.

BUSH HOE:  (EFFICIENT!)

Select a dead or half dead branch of hard wood, 4 to 6 inches
thick with a side branch from 5 to 6 feet long & 1 inch & half
thick coming off it at a fairly wide angle. Trim the side branch
so that it's smooth.

With your machete trim the main branch so that it is a hook to
the handle part. See that it is sharpened to a chisel edge. This
bush hoe is quite an efficient digging tool particularly if the
digging end is fire hardened.

BUSH SLED: 

There are occasions when it IS NECESSARY to move a heavy load and
a bush sled can be easily made from a forked branch of a tree.
The branch is cut with the prongs of the fork a couple of feet
behind the end of the main branch.

A rope or other means of towing the sled is fastened on to this
main part of the branch & across the forks a few straight sticks
are laid & the load placed on top of these.

****NOTE FROM THE CO-AUTHOR, DONT BITCH TO ME TO HARSHLY THE 
FOLLOWING KNOTS NEED A GOOD TRANSLATOR WHICH I AIN'T, SO BARE
WITH ME ONCE MORE, I AM STILL WORKING ON  IT. THE FINAL RESULT
WILL BE UPLOADED AS SOON AS POSSIBLE MEANWHILE THERE ARE MANY
TIPS WHICH CAN BE USEFULL TO YOU ALL. THANKS

#NOEUD PLAT ALSO CALLED SAILOR KNOT OR RICE KNOT#:

IT IS THE MOST USED KNOT. USES:    

To knot 2 ropes of the same size. To knot 2 cloth bands or the
ends of a bandage Knot 2 grass blade or supple hay.

Fold the strand left on right fig 1 and lace it fig 2*. Fold
again now right on left as fig 3* then lace it fig 4*. On each
side, the strand comes out side by side fig 5* 

NOTE: IT IS THE MOST USED KNOT.

But REMEMBER that it does not hold at all for 2 cables. If this
knot is not kept taut the knot has a tendency to undo itself when
the tension goes down.

FISHERMEN KNOT: A VERY GOOD ALL AROUND KNOT!

USES:

1)   To tie ropes that MUST go in water. Also ropes of different
     size. Ropes that are very slippery or greasy.

2)   Ropes that are rather rigid. Ropes that will be strongly
     shaken.
 
3)   Can also be used #pour la jugulaire# since one can regulate
     it by spreading the 2 simple knot. 

4)   Can also be used by exception for semi- metallic cable #a
     ame de chanvre and leather tongues#.

Fold the ropes on 15cm length and with each free strand (A B*)
make a simple knot around the other rope fig *1 then pull taut by
pulling on A & B as fig 2 and 3 shows.

NOTE:

1)   Ropes are knotted in straight line.
2)   Knot easy to undo even when wet.

3)   When you tie them the simple knots MUST BE done so that the
     strands come out side by side.

3 ESCAPE KNOTS: *p266

USES:     Come down a tree, a high beam and to retrieve the rope
either by shaking it or pulling on second strand 2 & 3. 

THE FIRST ONE MUST BE CAREFULLY DONE OTHER WISE VERY DANGEROUS.
The other offer all security but a longer rope.

1)   #make a noeud de galere don't le petit brin coulisse#, at
     least 0.80m as fig =1.

Roll around the branch and come back in the knot loop fig=2* #
Remonter et placer le brin ganse# between the branch & rope  as
#noeud de bois# fig=3 .

2)   In the middle of the rope make a solid loop fig 1 as #noeud
de plein poing, haulage model C or noeud de milieu # (below).

With one strand wrap around the branch and pass in the loop
and come down along this strand.

3)   Bend the rope in its middle and put down on the branch the
following loop.

# Passer un brin ganse dans la ganse# & tighten around the branch

#Passe l'autre brin ganse dans la new ganse# tighten by pulling
on the first strand. Come down by this strand.

NOTE:     Make the #ganse #G long enough.

REEF KNOT OR SQUARE KNOT: 

USES:     ONE OF THE BEST KNOWN KNOT

It is used to tie rope of same thickness and will hold firm even
under strain yet maybe fairly easily untied.

IT IS NOT RELIABLE FOR ROPES OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, NOR SHOULD
IT BE USED WITH NYLON -IT WILL SLIP.

Reef knots can be tied to other material and is a good knot to
use in: First- AID. It will lie flat against the patient.

Pass the RIGHT end over the LEFT and then under it.
Then take the LEFT over the RIGHT and under it.

Check it - the 2 loops should slide on each other. If you have
crossed the wrong way you will have a "granny" which may not hold
and is difficult to untie if subjected to strain.  

Tighten by pulling both the strands on each side, or just the
live ends, but BE SURE it tightens properly. 

To be doubly sure finish off the knot by making a half-hitch with
the live ends on either side of the knot. 

SIMPLE KNOTS:  

OVERHAND KNOT: THE SIMPLEST OF ALL KNOTS. 

Make a loop and pass the lie end back through it. It has little
purpose on its own except to make an end-stop on a rope, but it
is part of many other knots.

JOINING ROPES:

SHEET BEND:
USES: FOR JOINING ROPES OF THE SAME OR DIFFERENT THICKNESS. 

It can be more effective than the reef knot with those of equal
thickness.

IT IS IDEAL FOR JOINING DIFFERENT MATERIALS ESPECIALLY WHEN WET
OR FROZEN ROPES.

Simple to tie, suing up little of the rope length and swiftly
unknotted if it has not been subjected to strain.

IT NEVER SLIPS IF CORRECTLY MADE & STRAIN IS NOT ERRATIC BUT
CONSTANT.

1)   Make a loop in one rope. Take the live end of the other (*A)
right around behind the loop to the front where it is carried
over itself and then tucked down through the loop.

2)   Draw it tight and ease into shape as strain is increased.

DOUBLE SHEET BEND:

USES:     A knot that is even more secure than the Sheet Bend. It
          is USEFUL with WET ROPE.

Especially if they are of very different thickness but provides a
good strong join in ropes of even thickness too.

It is USEFUL where strain is not constant & an ordinary Sheet Ben
may slip.

1)   Make a loop in the thicker rope. Take the live end of the
thinner rope through the loop, beneath the thicker live end &
then forward on the outside of the loop and right around it.
Bring the thin live end back between itself and the outside of
the thick loop.  

2)   Take the thin live end completely around the loop again and
back through the same place on the outside of the thick loop.

3)   Draw it tight and ease into shape.

NOTE:     If not tightened these knots tend to work loose.

DO NOT USE:    With smooth material such as nylon fishing line or
silk. 

OVERHAND LOOP: 

A very quickly made knot for throwing over a projection The loop
is fixed and cannot be tightened so the projection MUST point
away from the direction of strain. Double the end of the rope and
tie an overhand knot with the loop.

FIGURE OF 8: 

This makes a much more effective end-stop than the overhand knot.
Make a loop. Carry the live end first behind, then around, the
standing part. Bring it forward through the loop.

FIGURE OF 8 LOOP:

More secure than the overhand loop, this is made in the same way
as the figure of 8, but with the line doubled, using the loop as
the live end. It can be used over a spike anchor for a belaying
rope.

REWOVEN FIGURE OF 8:  

USES:     A USEFUL anchoring knot where the top end of a
          projection is out of reach.

Make a loose figure of 8 along the rope. Pass the live end around
the anchor and feed it back around the figure of 8 following
exactly. Ease tight.

FISHERMAN'S KNOT:

USES:     A USEFUL knot for joining together springy materials
          such springy vines or wire. From Tarzan or Jane!

It is good for WET OR SLIPPERY LINES & particularly suitable for
joining gut fishing line. Soak the gut first to make it pliable.

Very secure, it will hold well with thin springy but it is very
difficult to untie.

Use when you do not trust the reef knot or sheet bend. It is NOT
springy for bulky ropes or nylon lines.

1)   Lay lines beside each other, the ends in opposite direction.
Carry the live end of one line around the other and make a simple
overhand knot.

2)   Repeat with the live end of the other line.

3)   Springy tighten the knots and slide them towards each other
ease them to rest well against one another, completing the
tightening process.

DOUBLE FISHERMAN'S:

USES:     This is a stronger version of the springy knot. It
          should NOT be used for nylon fishing line, nylon ropes
          or bulky ropes.

1)   Carry the live end of one line around the other, then around
     both.

2)   Carry the live end back through the two loops you just made.

3)   Repeat the pattern with the end of the other line.

4)   Slide the 2 knots together and tighten them, using them to
     rest well against each other. Apply strain gradually.

TAPE KNOT:

USES:     USEFUL knot for joining flat materials such as leather
or webbing straps, tape and possibly even for joining sheets or
other fabrics when improvising escape rope. Experiment.

1)   Make an overhand knot in the end of one "tape" Do not pull
     it tight.

2)   Feed the other tape through it so that it follows exactly
     the shape of the first knot.

3)   The live end should be well clear of the knot so that they
     will not slip back when you tighten it.

LOOP MAKING: BOWLINE: (Not Bowling?)    

USES:     This quickly tied knot makes a loop that will neither
tighten nor slip under strain. **Montain* It is used in the end
of a lifeline or wherever such a fixed loop is needed.

1)   Make a small loop a little way along the rope.  

2)   Bring the live end up through it, around the standing part
     and back down through the loop.

3)   Pull on the live end to tighten easing the knot into shape.
     Finish off with a half-hitch. (Not with 1/2 bitch)     

RUNNING BOWLINE: (Not Running Bowling!) 

USES:     Used in any situation requiring a loop which will
tighten easily. Make a small bowline and pass the long end of the
rope through the loop.

NEVER tie a running bowline around the waist, particularly when
climbing. It acts like a hangman's noose and could kill you or
others.

TRIPLE BOWLINE: 

EQUIPMENT HAULAGE OR AS SIT-SLING OR LIFTING HARNESS: 
		**good for montain**

Another Bowline made with a double line. Form a loop, pass the
doubled live end through the loop, behind the standing part &
back through the loop. This produces 3 loops which can be used
for: hauling or sit-sling. 

With one loop around each thigh and the other around the chest.
It takes some practices to get the proportions right, so learn to
tie the triple bowline BEFORE you need to use it.

BOWLINE ON THE BIGHT: ***good for montain**

USES:     This is USEFUL to support or to lift anyone from a
crevasse or elsewhere where they cannot climb out.

Make it with a doubled line, producing 2 loops springy will
springy nor jam. It forms a kind of springy, one loop around the
buttock, the other around the upper body.

As with the triple bowline, practice this knot BEFORE you need to
know how to use it.

You may find many uses for fixed double loops. House and -ship
-painters have been known to support their hanging platforms with
a knot like this at each end.

If the platform has a pole projecting at each corner, the loops
of the bow-line-on-bight can be slipped over. Notch the poles to
prevent the ropes from slipping off.

1)   Using the doubled line form a loop and pass the live end
     through it.

2)   Bring this end down *A) and over the end of the larger
double loop now formed. Ease it back up to behind the standing
part. Pull on the large double loop to tighten.

MANHARNESS HITCH: OR BUTTERFLY KNOT: OR ARTILLERY KNOT:
     ***good for montain**

USES:     This makes a non-slip knot. It has the advantage that
it can be  made along the length of the rope, but does not
require access to an end.  

Several loops could be put on a rope for harnessing people to
pull together in haulage or raising a weight.

Also a good way of preparing a rope for climbing. Toes and wrist
can be put into the loops to carry the weight so that a rest can
be taken when tired.

1)   Make a long loop in the rope but look closely at the
     drawing.

2)   Allow the left side of the rope to cross over the loop.

3)   Twist the loop 

4)   Pass it over the left part of the rope and through the upper
     part of the original loop.  

5)   Pull the knot gently into shape ease tight and test it good.

NOTE:     If this knot is not ease tight correctly it is possible
to end up with a slipping loop. (OOOPSSS!)

Different ways of making this knot may be found where the loop is
not twisted.

The final strength of the loop does not appear to be affected
either by making this twist or not, nor if the twist should
straighten out in use.

LADDERS:  

A ladder can be made by simply tying as many Manharness hitches
in a rope as you need for hand and foot holds.

It could also be made with rungs, using strong sticks or pieces
of wreckage. Use 2 ropes or a long rope doubled, with manharness
hitches placed equally along both sides to make a rope ladder.

Pass sticks through the corresponding loops, as you make the
loops and ease tight to hold the sticks firmly.

Allow the sticks to project a reasonable distance on either side
of the ropes for safety and test each for strength.

LADDER OF KNOTS: 

A series of overhand knots tied at intervals along a smooth rope
will make CLIMBING it much easier. There is a fast way of making
these once you have the knack, it's a snack.

1)   Leaving a reasonably long free end, make a half-hitch near
     the end of a short piece of branch or log.

2)   Continue making loose half-hitches along the log-the
	diameter of which will fix the spacing of the knots.

3)   Pass the start end back through all the loops and then slide
     them all off the end of the log.

4)   As each turn of rope comes through the centre of the
half-hitch loops to the other end shape and tighten each knot.

If you know the length of your rope you can estimate the number
of knots you need.

With a half-hitch for every knot, choose a thickness of log to
also the required number of turns. And therefore the required
numbers of knots.

HONDA KNOT: (AH! SO!)

USES:     This another knot that makes a free-running noose, but
this one gives a clear circular loop suitable for THROWING. It is
a lasso for Rambo! 

You may find the use for this lasso in many ways but, in a
survival situation, if you have only one length of rope, it would
be unwise to spend much time and energy trying to catch animals
in this way.

It takes a lot of practice. When you really need the rope it may
be worn and damaged from your lassoing efforts.

However, it is worth making one to experiment with so that you
have the skill already, should you need it for actual survival.

A)   Start with an overhand knot. 
B)   Form a loop further down the rope.
C)   Double the rope into a bight between loop and knot.

D)   Pass the bight through the loop.
E)   Tighten the loop around the bight.

F)   Pass the long end of the rope through the new eye formed by
     the bight. 

NOTE:

Before trying to use a lasso on a animal consider its strength
against your own.

A large animal can and almost certain will run. If you are
holding the rope firmly it my dragged away and you will loose
your meal and your rope.

If the rope is anchored to you. YOU may be dragged along and
severely injured. Can you make use of a firm anchor to carry the
strain ? A turn around a tree trunk or a rock may secure what is
too powerful for you to restrain on your own.

HITCHES: 

These are knots for attaching ropes to posts, bars (HIC!) &
poles. (Not Polish?)

ROUND TURN AND 2 HALF-HITCH:

This is the best way to secure a rope to a post. It can take
strain from almost any direction. Carry rope around behind the
post then around again.

Bring the live end over and back under the standing end and
through the loop thus formed. Tighten and repeat the half hitch
to make the knot secure.

CLOVE-HITCH: (not close-bitch!)

An effective attachment when strain is perpendicular to the
horizontal. It is not so good when strain comes at an angle or
the direction of strain is erratic-this could loosen the hitch.

1)   Pass the live end over and around the bar.
2)    Bring it across itself and around the bar again.
     
3)   Carry the live end up and under itself moving in the
     opposite direction to the standing end. 
4)   Close up and pull tight.

It is possible to make a clove hitch in loops on a rope and to
put the whole knot ready-made on to the spar.

If you have access to the spar end. Many experienced knot makers
do this, Make a loose clove hitch and slip it off the spar. Lay
it down and copy the loops formed by the rope. Slip on to the
spar and tighten.

TIMBER HITCH:  

This knot is used mainly as a start knot for Lashing, but can
also be used for Hoisting, and for: Dragging or Towing Heavy logs
(or dear deer! EVE-HAND dear Jane!)

1)   Bring the live end around the bar and loosely around the
     standing end.

2)   Carry it forward and tuck it beneath the rope encircling the
bar. Twist it around as many times as comfortably fit. Tighten
the knot by gently pulling on the standing end until a firm grip
is achieved.

KILLICK HITCH OR ANCHOR HITCH:

Use for securing a line to an anchoring weight. It can be used to
secure an actual anchor for use in water or to hold back one end
of a throwing line.

Make a timber hitch around one end of the rock or weight and
tighten. Carry the line along the weight and make a half-hitch.

MARLIN SPIKE HITCH: (SEA KNOT**)

This is an instant but temporary knot for securing a mooring line
to a post or for dragging over the top of any upright peg or
pole.

It is particularly USEFUL when tightening a short stout stick to
the line it is possible to gain extra purchase on the line to
administer a firmer pull.

1)   Form a loop in the rope-study the drawing carefully.

2)   Bring one side of the loop back up over the standing end.

3)   Drop this over the pole-the pole coming between the extended
loop and the standing part. Pull the live end to tighten.

QUICK-RELEASE KNOT OR HIGHWAY-MAN HITCH OR THIEF KNOT: 
     **mountain climbing

This knot is secure but will come untied with a single sharp tug
on the live end.

It is recommended for temporarily anchoring line while working-or
for situations which need a quick release.

1)   Carry a bog bight around a post or a rail.
2)    Bring a bight from the standing end through the first
     bight.

3)   From the live end into a further bight and push the doubled
end through the loop of the second bight. Pull on the standing
end to tighten the knot. 

4) TO RELEASE:  Pull sharply on the live end.

SHORTENING ROPE SHEEPSHANK:

Treble the line. From half-hitches in the outer lengths and slip
them over the adjoining bends.

Or, instead of half-hitch, when a loop is formed in the standing
part, pull a bight through it and slip this over the bend in the
rope. Tighten as you gradually increase tension.

PART 2:

Making a sheepshank more secure by passing a stick through the
bend and behind the standing part.

Or, if you have access to the rope's end, pass that through the
bight. A stick would make this more secure.

NEVER CUT A ROPE UNNECESSARILY.

You NEVER know when you may be glad of its full length. A knotted
rope has fully half the strength of a  continuous one. Use the
sheepshank to shorten it or to exclude a damaged or weakened
section.

SECURING LOADS BY WAKOS TRANSPORT KNOT:

A KNOT INVALUABLE FOR SECURING A HIGH LOAD TO A BOAT, RAFT,
SLEDGE ETC. OR FOR TYING DOWN A ROOF.

 Maximum purchase is achieved by pulling down with all your
weight and finally securing with 2 half-hitches.

If it comes loose undo the hitches, retighten and secure. This
knot can also be used for a line across a river or chasm which
needs tightening from time to time.

1)   Make a loop in the rope. Further down, towards the end of
     the rope, make a bight.

2)   Pass the bight through the loop.
3)   Make a twist in the new lower loop. Pass the end of the rope
     around securing point and up through this twist.

4)   Pull on end to tighten.  
5)   With end make 2 half-hitches around the lower ropes to
     secure. Undo these to adjust and retighten.

PRUSIK KNOT: (Yavohl!)

A knot that makes a sliding loop especially USEFUL when attached
along a climbing rope.

It will NOT slip under tension, but will slide along the rope
when tension is released.

Also USEFUL for ropes that need retensioning from time to tie,
such as tent guy-line.

A pair of prusik knots along a rope provide hand and foot hold
for climbing or for swinging along a horizontal line. They are
slid along the main rope as you proceed.

1)   Pass a bight around the main rope and pull the ends through.
     Keep this loose.

2)   Take the ends over again and back down through the loop.
     Ease tight. Do not allow the circuits to overlap.

3)   This gives the appearance of four turns on the main rope. 

Mountaineers sometimes take the ends round again and back through
the loop to give the appearance of 6 turns on the main rope (*B).

4)   The Prusik knot can be made using a fixed splices loop in
which case pass the bight over the main rope and back through
itself & repeat.

CLIMBING NOTE: 

When used for climbing, or travelling along a rope, a spliced
loop is SAFEST. If you have no spliced, join the ends after the
knot is made.

     TEST JOINS RIGOROUSLY BEFORE RELYING UPON THEM.

LASHINGS:

Methods of lashing spars, logs, poles etc. together differ
according to the position of the components. Learn their
technique in making shelters, rafts & other structures.

SQUARE LASHING: 

This is for the lashing spars which cross. Most effective when
they do so at right angles.

1)   Make a timber hitch carrying the line alternatively above
and below both spars in a complete circuit before securing it.
Then carry the rope over and under both spars in an anti
-clockwise direction.

2)   After 2 or 3 circuits make a full turn around a spar and
     circuit in the opposite direction.

3)   Completes the circuits with a half hitch around one spar and
     secure with a clove hitch on a spar at right angle.

ROUND LASHING:

This is for lashing spars alongside each other or extending the
length of a spar. Begin with a clove hitch around both spars then
bind the rope around them.

Finish knot with a clove hitch at the other end force a wedge
under the lashing to make them really tight. If the spars are
vertical bang the wedge in downward.

DIAGONAL LASHING:

An alternative to square lashing which is more effective, when
spars do not cross at right angle, or more especially when the
spars are under strain and have to be pulled towards one another
for tying.

1)   Begin with a timber hitch around both spars, place
     diagonally.

2)   Trap both spars with a few turns of rope over the timber
     hitch then make a full turn under the bottom spar.

3)   Trap across the other diagonal then bring the rope back
voter one spar and make two or three circuits of the spars above
the upper spar and below the lower.

4)   Finish with a clove-hitch on a convenient spar.

SHEAR LASHING:  (Sheer Laughing?)  

For tying the ends of 2 spars at an angle, when making a A frame.
Begin with a clove hitch around one spar.

Bind around both spars - this binding should not be very tight.
Bring rope between the spars and frap a couple around the
binding.

Finish with a clove hitch around the other spar. Tighten by
opening up the shears. A similar method can be used around 3
poles to make a tripod.

Make turns around all 3 legs and frapping in the 2 gaps. The feet
of A frames and tripod should be anchored to stop them spreading.

KNOTS NOT:

The following knots are not made to be used for metallic or liana
for there are others to that effect. All those knots are the
combined result of 3 elements.

1) #la ganse# 2) Loop or half key 3) #tour mort#.

It is often USEFUL to fix by a light #surliure# from a few turns
of thread the floating strand of knots.

These #surliures# do not take any effort or strain but increase
considerably the security. There are good and bad knots.

A good knot is easily and quickly made, it is solid, the greater
the strain the tighter it becomes. Also easy to undo and of nice
looking. A bad knot does not hold or becomes impossible to undo.

One does not learn knots by snobbism but to use them and he MUST
also know the usages for a good knot man know right away what
knot or combination to use for the particular problem at hand.


KNOT IN FIG OF 8 OR GERMAN KNOT: (Javohl!)

USES:     Prevent the end of rope to pass through a hole. 

2)   Rope Ladder.
3)   Can be used as a Slippery Knot.

Make a loop #1 then pass behind the #brin engage# and come back
by the other side in the loop fig 2.

KNOTS TO ATTACHE BIG CABLE: (CLARK CABLE?)   

2 very big cable are easily attache by a Carrick Knot. The two
free strand will be attached together with a small sting thus the
Carrick Knot will not be too strong and easy to untie thus SAFER
as well. 

To MAKE SURE that it will resist strong traction you MUST MAKE
SURE that your #episssure# has a total length to 15 times the
diameter of the cable.


PHILOSOPHY ?!? OF ROPE:? YES !
ROPES AND LINES. 

Ropes can be made from any pliable, fibrous material producing
strands of sufficient length & strength.

Nylon rope have the advantage of great inherent strength,
lightness, resistance to water, insects and rot.

However nylon rope should not be the automatic choice if choosing
equipment. Nylon has the disadvantage that it can melt if
subjected to heat and friction on a rope produces heat.

It is also slippery when wet. While its tensile trength is good,
nylon also tends to snap if subjected to tension over an edge -
it does not have to be a very sharp edge either, so BE CAREFUL of
this.

TYPES OF ROPE:

Kernmantel type encloses a central core of strands in an outer
sheath. Easier to handle, except when icy or wet, but no strong
as hawser. It can unravel if cut.

Traditional Hawser-laid rope has 3 bundles of fibres twisted
together. If one is severed the others may hold.

CHOOSING ROPE:

Match type, thickness and length of rope you carry to the demands
you expect to make on it.

Nylon will have advantages in very damp climates and when weight
is critical but REMEMBER its drawbacks. Thickness of 7mm (5/16in)
and below are difficult to handle.

Rope about 9-10mm (3/8in) is usually recommended for Lashing,
Throwing and Mountaineering. ***

It can be used for safety lines and for climbing, provided belay
and abseiling techniques are used.

It is not thick enough for a hand over hand and foot grip. A
length of 30-40m (100-125ft) would then be as much as can be
carried without encumbrance.

Climbing rope MUST BE elastic, to absorb some of the shock,
without putting enormous strain on anyone who falls. ***2 rpt in
climb..

See if it has the approval of official mountaineering bodies or
conforms to the British Standard 3184 (for Hawser laid ropes) 

TAKING CARE OF ROPE:

Rope MUST BE protected from unnecessary exposure to damp or
strong sunlight and in case of natural fibres from attack by
rodent and insects.

If it does get wet do not force-dry it in front of a fire. Do not
unnecessarily drag it along or leave it on the ground.

Dirt can penetrate and particles of grit work away at the fibres
from inside the rope. If weather conditions will make drying
possible, it is worth to wash a very dirty rope in clean water.

Try to keep a rope for the job for which it was intended. Do not
use climbing rope as clothesline or lashing if you can AVOID it.
Though in survival situation you may have to use the same length
for many purposes.

Whipping the end of the rope will prevent fraying. To prevent a
rope becoming tangled, store and carry it in a coil or skein.

It will be easier to handle and to pay out when needed. Rope is a
valuable equipment. You may have to trust your life to it. Do
your best to kept in good condition

SIMPLE COIL:

Make a coil of rope 35-45cm (14-18in) in diameter, keeping each
circle of the rope alongside the next without twisting or
tangling. Leave a length at each end ready for fastening.

1): Bend one end back along the coil and wrap it with the other
	end.

2)   Feed the "wrapping" end through the loop and pull to secure

3): Tie off with a reef knot shown later.

FOR LONGER ROPES:

If you wish to carry long ropes over your shoulder or suspended
from a belt or from a pack, form a skein.

Loop the rope backward and forward over your arm, letting it hang
down about 35-60cm (18-24in) long. Leave the ends free.

Take both ends together and wrap them several times around the
skein. Make a loop and take this through the top part of the
#skein# and finally pass the ends through this loop. Now tie off
on to your pack with a reef knot.

THROWING A ROPE:

It is easier to throw a coil of rope than to attempt to sling a
loose end - whether you are throwing upwards or outward - and it
helps to split the coil so that it does not tangle.

Have a large knot or weight on the throwing end. MAKE SURE that
you keep hold of the other end ! Think about the anchored end and
what will happen to it when the other end reaches target.

If throwing a lifeline for instance to a fast-moving raft on
water, are you going to be pulled into the water yourself? 
Anchor the end to a tree or weight.

ALWAYS over-throw a line so that the recipient stands a good
chance of catching part of the rope even if they this the end.

Coil half the rope on to the fingers and the palm of the right
hand, then raise the index finger and coil the remainder on the
other fingers only.

Pass the second coil back to the left hand. As you throw release
the right-hand coil a split second before the left.

Anchor your end if you think there will be sudden strain on it
and your position is precarious.

FOR A LONG THROW:

Tie a suitable missile to the end of the rope. Coil the rope
carefully on the ground or loop it loosely over the other hand so
that it will pay out freely as you throw the missile. Don't risk
loosing your end of the rope.

Tie that to an anchor, a heavy stone for instance. Use a Killick
Hitch* (later). If throwing a weighted rope over a branch keep
out of its path at is swings back towards the throwing point! If
throwing a lifeline PLEASE don't knock out the person that you
are trying to help.

ROPE MAKING: THE MA-KING OF ROPES & CORDS:

Almost any natural fibrous material can be spun into good
serviceable rope or cord and many material which have a length of
12 to 24 inches or more can be braided or plaited.

Ropes of up to 3 and 3 inches diameter can be laid by four people
& breaking strains from bush made rope of 1 inch diameter range
from 100 to as high as 2,000 or 3,000 lbs.

BREAKING STRAINS:

Taking a three lay rope of 1 inch diameter as standard the
following table of breaking strains may serve to give a fair idea
of general strengths of various materials.

For safety sake ALWAYS regard the lowest figure as the breaking
strain unless you know otherwise.

Green grass= 100 to 250 lbs. / Bark fibre= 500 to 1,500 lbs. /
Palm fibre = 650 to 2,000 lbs. Sedges*= 2,000 to 2,500 lbs. /
Monkey ropes (liana)=  560 to 700 lbs.

Lawyer vine  (calamus)*= 1/2 inch diam = 1,200 lbs. Double the
diameter quadruple the breaking strain. Halve the diameter & you
reduce the breaking strains to 1 fourth. (1/4).

PRINCIPLE OF ROPE MAKING MATERIALS:

To discover whether a material is suitable for rope making it
MUST HAVE 4 qualities:

It MUST BE reasonably long in the fibre. It MUST HAVE strength.
MUST BE pliable and MUST HAVE grip so that the fibres will bite
onto one another.

3 SIMPLE TESTS:

There are 3 simple tests to find if any material is suitable;
First pull on a length of the material to test it for strength.

The second test via strength is to twist it between the fingers
and roll the fibres together; if it will stand this and not snap
apart tie a thumb knot in it and gently tighten the knot.

If the material does not cut upon itself but allow the knot to be
pulled taut then it is a suitable for rope making providing that
the material will bite together and is not slippery or smooth.

You will find these qualities in all sorts of plants in ground
vines, in most of the longer grasses, in some of the water reeds
and rushes, in the inner barks of many trees and shrubs and in
the long hair or wool of many animals.

Some green freshly gathered materials may be stiff or unyielding.
When this is the case try passing it through hot flames for a few
moments.

The heat treatment should cause the sap to burst through some of
the cell structure and the material thus becomes pliable.

Fibres for rope making may be obtained from  many sources;
Surface roots of many shrubs and trees have strong fibrous bark.

Dead Inner bark of fallen branches of some species of trees and
in the new growth of many trees such as willows. In the fibrous
material of many water and swamp growing plants and rushes.

In many species of grass and in many weeds (pot?!?). In some sea
weeds. In fibrous material from leaves, stalks and trunks of many
palms & in many fibrous leaved plants such as the aloes*.

GATHERING AND PREPARATION OF MATERIALS:

In some plants there may be a high content of vegetable gum and
this can often be removed by soaking in water or by boiling or
again by drying the material and teasing it into thin strips.

Some of the materials have to be used green if any strength is
required. The material that should be green include the sedges*
water rushes* and should be cut NEVER pulled.

Cutting above ground is harvesting but pulling up the plant=
destruction. It is advisable no to denude an area entirely but to
work over a wide area location and harvest the most suitable
material leaving some for seeding and further growth.

For the gathering of sedges and grasses be particularly careful
therefore to harvest the material that is to cut what you require
above the ground level and take only from the biggest clumps.

By doing this you are not destroying the plant but rather aiding
the natural growth since you are truly pruning. It is easiest
method. Many of the strong leafed plants are deeply rooted and
you can not simply pull a leaf off them.

Palm fibre in tropical and sub tropical area is harvested. You
will find it at the junction of the leaf and the palm trunk or
lying on the ground beneath many palms.

Palm fibre is natural for making ropes and cord. Fibrous matter
from the inner bark of trees and shrubs is generally more easily
used if the plants is dead or half dead.  

Much of the natural gum will have dried up and when the material
is being teased prior to spinning the gum or resin will fall out
in fine powder.

There may be occasions when you will have to use the bark of
green shrubs but AVOID this unless it is ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL and
cut only a branch here and there.

NEVER cut a complete tree just because you want the bark for a
length of rope.

TO MAKE A ROPE BY SPINNING WITH THE FINGERS:

Use any material with long strong threads or fibres which you
have previously tested for strength and pliability.

Gather the fibres into loosely held strands of even thickness.
Each of these strands is twisted clockwise. The twist will hold
the fibres together.

The strand should be from 1/8 inch downwards for a rough and
ready rule, there should be 15 to 20 fibres to a strand.

2, 3 or 4 of these strands are later twisted together and this
twisting together or laying is done with an anti-clockwise twist
while at the same time the separate strands which have not yet
been laid up are twisted clockwise.

Each strand MUST BE of equal twist and thickness. The person who
twists the strands together is called the layer and he MUST see
that the twisting is even. That the strands are uniform and that
the tension on each strand is equal.

In laying he MUST watch that each of the strand is evenly laid up
that is that 1 strand does not twist around the other two. (A
thing you'll find happening the first time you try to lay up.)

When spinning fine cords for fishing lines, snares etc.
considerable care MUST BE taken to keep the strands uniform and
the lay even.

Fine thin cords of nor more than one thirty second of an inch
thickness can be spun with the fingers and they are capable of
taking a breaking strain of 20 to 30 lbs or more. Normally 2 or
more people are required to spin and lay up the strands for a
cord.

Yet many natives when spinning cord do so unaided, twisting the
material by running the flat of the hand along the thigh with the
fibrous material between hand and thigh and with the free hand
they feed in fibre for the next spin.

By this means one person can make long length of single strands.
This method of making cord or rope with the fingers is slow if
any considerable length of cord is required.

A more simple and easy way to rapidly make lengths of rope of 50
to 100 yards or more in length is to make a rope walk and set up
multiple spinners in the form of cranks. See photo * 259b.

In a rope walk, each feeder holds the material under one arm and
with one free hand feeds in into the strand which is being spun
by the crank.

The other hand lightly hold the fibres together till they are
spun. As the slightly spun strands are increased in length they
MUST BE supported on crossbars.

DON'T let them lie on the ground. You can spin strand of 20 to
100 yards before laying up. Do not spin the material in too
thickly. Thick strands do not help strength in any way rather
they tend to make a weaker rope.

SETTING A ROPEWALK:

When spinning ropes of 10 yards or longer it IS NECESSARY to set
crossbars every 2 or 3 yards to carry the strands as they are
spun.

If cross bars are not set up the strands or rope will sag to the
ground and some of the fibres will tangle up with grass, twigs or
dirt on the ground.

Also the twisting of the free end may either be stopped or
interrupted and the strand will be unevenly twisted.

The easiest way to set up crossbars for the rope walk is to drive
pairs of forked stakes into the ground about 6 feet apart and at
intervals of about 6 to 10 feet.

The crossbars MUST BE smooth and free from twigs and loose
portions of bark that might twist in with the spinning strands.

The crossbar "A" is supported by 2 uprights and pierced to take
the cranks "B". * These cranks can be made out of natural sticks,
morticed slab and peg or bent wire if available.

The connecting rod "C" enables one man to turn all cranks
clockwise simultaneously. Whatever turns your crank boy!

Crossbars supporting the strands as they are spun are shown "D".
A similar crank handle to "C" is supported on a fork stick at the
end of the rope walk.

This handle is turned in reverse (anti-clockwise) to the cranks
"C" to twist the connected strands together. These are laid up by
one or more of the feeders.

ALWAYS MAKE IT A RULE TO TURN THE FIRST STRAND CLOCKWISE; then
the laying up of the strands will be done anti-clockwise and the
next laying will again be clockwise. Proof that your rope is well
made will be if the individual fibres lie lengthways along the
rope.

In the process of laying up the strands, the actual twisting
together or laying will take some of the original twist out of
the strands which has not yet been laid. Therefore it IS
NECESSARY to keep twisting the strands whilst laying together.

When making a rope too long to be spun and laid in one piece, a
section is laid up and coiled on the ground at the end of the
rope walk farthest from the cranks.

Strands for a second length are spun and these strands are
married or spliced into the strands of the first section and then
the laying up of the second section continues the rope.

The actual marrying of the strands is done only in the last lay
which when completed makes the rope. The ends where the strands
are married should be staggered in different places.

By this means rope can be made and extended in section of great
length. After your complete length of rope is laid up.

Pass it through fire to burn off the loose ends and fibres. This
will make your rope smooth and most professional looking.

LAYING THE STRANDS: (Stranded on a sea-shore?)

The strands lie on the crossbars as they are spun. When the
strands have been spun to the required length which should be
more than about a 100 feet they are joined together by being held
at the far end. They are then ready for laying together.

The turner who is facing the cranks twists the ends together
anti-clockwise at the same time keeping his full weight on the
rope end which is being laid up.

The layer advances placing the strands side by side as they turn.
Laying up is very fast when the layer is experienced. He quickly
gets the feeling of the work.

It is important to learn to feed the material evenly, and lay up
slowly thereby getting a smooth even rope.

Do not try to rush the rope making. If you do you will have
uneven, badly spun strands and ugly lays and poor rope.

Speed in rope making only comes with practice. At first it will
take a team of 3 or 4 up to 2 or more hours to make a 50 yard
length of rope of 3 lays, each of 3 strands.

That is 9 strands for a rope with a finished diameter of about 1
inch. With practice the same 3 or 4 people will make the same
rope in 15 to 20 minutes.

These times do not include the time for gathering the material.
In feeding the free ends of the strands twist in the loose
material fed in by the feeder.

The feeder MUST move backwards at a speed governed by the rate at
which he feeds. As the feeder moves backwards he MUST keep a
slight tension on the strands.

MAKING ROPE WITH A SINGLE SPINNER:

2 people can make a rope using a single crank. A portion of the
material is fastened to the eye of the crank as with the multiple
crank and the feeder holding the free end of this trend against
the bundle of loose material under his arm feeds in,  walking
backwards.

Supporting crossbars as used in ropewalk are required when a
length of more than 20 or 30 feet is being spun.

FEEDING:

If the feeder is holding material under his left arm, his right
hand is engaged in continuously pulling material forward to his
left hand which feeds it into the turning strand.

These actions done together as the feeder walks backwards govern
the thickness of the strands.

( His left hand lightly closed over the loose turning material
MUST feel the fibres bitting or twisting together.)

THICKNESS OF STRANDS:

Equal thickness for each of the strands throughout their length &
equal twist are important. The thickness should not be greater
than IS NECESSARY with the material being used.

For grass rope the strand should not be more than 1/4 inch in
diameter for coarse bark or palm not more than 1/8 to 3/16 and
for fine bark or hair or sisal fibre not more than 1/8 inch.

For cords the strand should be NO MORE THAN 1/16 inch diameter.
Fine cords cannot be made from grass unless the fibres are
separated by beating out and combing. The correct amount of twist
is when the material is hard that is the twist is tight.

FAULTS COMMON WITH BEGINNERS: (EVE-hand Begin-Hers?)

There is a tendency with the beginner to feed unevenly. This
wispy sections of strand are followed by thick husky portions.
Such feeding is useless.

Rope made from such strands will break off with less than 1/4 of
the possible strain from the material.

The beginner is wise to twist and feed slowly and to make regular
even strands rather than rush the job and try & make the strand
quickly. Speed with uniformity of twist and thickness come only
with practice.

In a short time when you have the feel of feeding you will find
you can feed at the rate of from 30 to 60 feet/min. Thick strands
do NOT help. 

IT IS USELESS TO TRY AND SPIN A ROPE FROM STRANDS AN INCH OR MORE
IN THICKNESS.

Such a rope will break with less than half the potential strain
of the material. Spinning thick strands does not save time in
rope making.

LIANA, VINES & CANES: Mondo Cane? or ask Tarzan or Jane!

Liana and ground vines are natural ropes and grow in sub-tropical
regions scrub and jungle.

Many are of great strength and USEFUL for bridging, tree climbing
etc. The smaller ground vines when plaited give great strength
and flexibility.

Canes and stalks of palms provide excellent material if used
properly. Only the outer skin is tough and strong and this skin
will split off easily if you bend the main stalk away from the
skin.

This principle applies to the splitting of layer cane (calamus*),
all the palm leaf stalks and all green material.

If the split start to run off, you MUST BEnd the material away
from the thin side & then it will gradually gain in size and come
back to an even thickness with the other split side. 

BARK FIBRES: (To bark or not to bark?)

The fibres in many barks which a suitable for rope making are
close to the innermost layer. This the bark next to the sap wood.

When seeking suitable barks of green timber, cut a small section
about 3 inches long and an inch wide.

Cut this portion right from the wood to the outer skin of the
bark. Peel this specimen and test the different layers.

Green bark fibres are generally difficult to spin because of the
gum and it is better to search around for wind fallen dead
branches.

And to try the inner bark of these. The gum will probably have
leached out and the fibres separate very easily.

Many shrubs have excellent bark fibre and here it is advisable to
cut the end of branch and peel of a strip of bark for testing.

Thin barks from green shrubs are sometime difficult to spin into
fine cord and it is then easier to use the #lariat plait# for
small cords.

Where IS NECESSARY to use green bark fibre for rope spinning if
time permits you will find that the gum will generally wash out
when the bark is teased and soaked in water for a day or so.

After removing from the water allow the bark strips to partly dry
out before shredding and teasing into fibre.

PLATING:

One many may need a considerable length of rope and if he has no
assistance to help him spin his material.

One can often find reasonably long material (1 to 3 feet or more)
and using this material he can plait or braid and so make a
suitable rope.

The usual 3 plait makes a flat rope and while quite good, has not
the finish or shape nor is it as tight as the 4 or #lariat
plait#.

On other occasion it may be necessary to plait broad bands for
belts or for shoulder straps. A general rule for all plaits is to
work form the outside in to the centre.

3 PLAIT:

Take the right hand strand and pass it over the strand to the
left. Then take the left hand strand and pass it over the strand
to the right and repeat alternatively from left to right.

FLAT 4 PLAIT: 

Lay the 4 strand side by side. The right hand strand and lay it
over the strand to the left.

Now take the outside left hand strand and lay it under the next
strand to itself and over what was the first strand.

Now take what is now the outside right hand strand and lay it
over the first strand to its left.

*Take the outside left strand and put it under and over the next
2 strands respectively moving toward the right.

Thereafter your right hand strand goes over one strand to the
left and your left hand strand under and over to the right.

BROAD PLAIT:

To start, take 6 or 7 or more strands and hold them flat
together. Take a stand in the centre and pass it over the next
strand to the left.

Take the second strand in the centre to the left and pass it
towards the right over the strand you first took so that it
points toward the right over the strand you first took so that it
points towards the right.

Now take the next strand to the first one & weave it under and
over.

Weave the next strands from left and right alternatively towards
the centre. The finishing plait should be tight and close it.

ROUND OR LARIAT PLAIT:  4 STRANDS:

1)   Lay the 4 strands together side by side as in fig 1 and
cross the right hand centre strand over and then around the left
hand strand.

2)   Take the left hand outside strand & pass it over the 2
crossed strands and then under the right hand one of the 2 so
that it is pointing towards the left.

3)   Take the free right hand strand and pass it over the 2
twisted strands to the left & completely round the left hand one
of the 2. 

4)   Repeat this with the outside left hand strand.

5) repeat with the right hand strand.

     CAUTION:  ALWAYS TEST IT. 


Prior to trusting your life to a bush made rope, ALWAYS TEST IT.
Use your mother in law or this lousy travel agent.

Tie one end to a tree and put 3 or 4 fellows onto the other end,
hang your mother in law, if it works then it is good  (don't do
this).

Have them take the strain gently until finally all their weight
is on the rope.  If they can not break it then is it is safe for
one man at time to use it to climb or descend a cliff face. When
climbing up a bush made rope ALWAYS use the foot lock *p261 &
when descending.
 
NEVER slide down the rope. Climb down using the same foot lock to
AVOID burns.

The foot lock offers a measure of safety and the climber is so
secure that he can actually stand on the rope and rest without
his body weight being carried entirely on his arms.

To prove this, use the foot lock and clasp the rope to your body
with your arms. You will find that you are standing on the rope
and quite secure.

FOOT LOCK: 

By means of the foot lock you can climb to any height on the
ropes, stopping to rest when your arms tire.

The foot lock is made by holding onto the rope with both hands
lifting the knees and kicking the rope to the outside of one
foot.

The foot on the opposite side to the rope is pointed so that the
toe picks up the rope which is pulled over the foot which was
against the rope and under the instep of the foot which picked it
up.

The 2 feet are brought together and the rope is now over the
instep of one foot & under the ball of the other.

Then to secure the grip and lock the rope the feet are place one
on top of the other so that the rope is clamped down by the foot
on top.

By straightening the knees and rising the hands the body is
lifted and a fresh grab taken for the next rise.

In descending the body is bent the hands lowered and the foot
lock released and a fresh grip taken with the feet at a lower
level on the rope.

It is advisable to wear boots or shoes when climbing bush made
ropes.

This method of descending is much SAFER than sliding. In sliding
there is grave risk of bad rope burns to hands or legs.

#ABSYLE# FOR ROCK DESCENT: *

The #Absyle# is used for rock descent work generally at times it
also can be used to climb up or ascent.

In the #Absyle# the body is upright but the legs are stretched
out and the feet pressed against the rock face.  

The rope passes down between the thighs, around one thigh and
diagonally up and across the upper half of the body and over the
shoulder opposite then coming down at the back to be held by the
left hand to check speed along with the right hand which is the
master guide.*

SINGLE ROPE LADDER WITH STICKS:

A single ladder is made by opening the lays of the rope and
inserting cross sticks each about 8 inches long as shown with an
equal amount protruding on either side of the rope.

These cross sticks MUST BE secure to the rope and it IS NECESSARY
to lash to the robe above and below the sticks. The distance
between the sticks should be from 15 to 18 inches.

To climb a rope ladder hold the hope with both hands, bend the
knees and draw both feet up together and lay them with even
pressure on the next cross sticks.

When the footing is secure raise the hands and continue the
action which is somewhat like that of a toy monkey on a string.

Bush single rope ladders have the advantage that they can be used
easily by people who may not be able to climb by ordinary means.

They provide an easy means of ascending and descending a cliff or
a look out. Go for it Jane! 

SINGLE ROPE LADDER WITH CHOCKS: (Shoc-king?!)

This type of ladder has the advantage of being portable and
quickly made. The chocks of hardwood a about 6 inches in diameter
& 2 inches deep and are suitably bored to take the diameter of
the rope.

Splice an eye at the top end and seize in a thimble to lash the
rope head securely.

To secures the chocks put 2 strands of seizing between the
strands of the rope and then work a wall knot.

NOTE ABOUT #CHARDON# (THISTLE)?:

They can make you an emergency rope even rabbit snare, split the
stalk and weave a rope.

ROPE BRIDGE NOTE:

The first "A" frame is hooked onto the ropes and pushed forward
with a stick.

The footing a straight sapling is dropped down onto the crotch of
the frame and the bridge builder walks out along this and hooks
on the next "A" frame pushing it out the required distance and
repeats the process till the far bank is reached.

ROPE BRIDGES MUST NEVER BE OVERLOADED, ONE AT A TIME IS A SAFE
RULE.

If Monkey vines, Liana or Lawyer vines (Calamus*) are available
instead of bush made rope use any of these. They are much
stronger and will make a bridge strong enough for 4 to 6 men.

TO MEASURE THE DISTANCE ACROSS A RIVER OR GORGE:

Select a mark on the opposite bank "A" and then drive a stake on
the near bank "B". *

Walk at right angles for a know number of paces and put in
another marker stake C and continue an equal number of paces and
a third marker "D".

Turn at right angles away from the river and keep moving back
until the centre marker stake and the mark on the other side of
the river are in line "E".*

Measure the distance from the third or last marker peg "D" to
this point "E" and this distance will equal the distance across
the river.

TO GET A ROPE ACROSS A NARROW DEEP RIVER:

Fasten a stout stick to the end of the rope. The rope MUST BE in
the middle of the stick. Select a forked tree on the opposite
bank.

Throw the free end of the coiled line with the stick across the
river to the tree. After many cast when it has caught; test it
with 2 or 3 people to MAKE SURE the line is secured.  

Fasten the near end of the rope to a convenient anchor and then
the person crossing the line, the lightest of the party hangs
onto the line lifts his legs and hooks them over the rope with
his feet toward the opposite bank.

By this means he can work himself across the river and do all the
work which has to be done on that riverside.

SAFETY LINE FOR RIVER CROSSING:

A bush rope can be spun to server as safety line for crossing
flooded or fast rivers.

The rope is taken across by a team member and fastened to an
anchor on the opposite bank. As a safety line it should be above
the water level.  

The person crossing should stand on the downstream side of the
rope and face upstream, he crosses by moving his feet sideways.

One step at a time and holding all the time to the rope which
helps him keep his balance if by chance the current is so strong
that it sweeps him off his feet his grip on the line will save
him from being washed downstream then he can regain his footing
and proceed.

1-2-3- ANCHOR:

A very stout stake is driven into the ground at an angle of about
45 degree and to the foot of this the main rope to be anchored is
fastened.

To the head of this stake 2 ropes are secured and these are
fastened to the foot of 2 stakes to the rear.

The heads of these stakes are in turn tied back to the foot of 3
other stakes. This anchor will hold secure under almost all
conditions.

ANCHORING A PEG IN SAND or SNOW:

The only way to anchor a rope into soft sand is to attach it to a
peg and bury the peg in the sand.

Scrape a trench in the sand to a depth of between 12 to 18 inches
deeper if high winds or very stormy weather are expected.

Pass the rope round the centre of the peg scratch a channel for
it at right angles to the peg trench.

Fill in the trench and rope channel and fasten the free end of
the rope to the standing end with a stopper hitch* and pull taut.

The buried peg should hold a tent rope in sand under all normal
weather conditions. Same applies in snow.

BUSH WINDLASS:

A bush windlass capable of taking a very heavy strain on a rope
can be made by selecting a site where a tree forks low to the
ground with the fork facing the direction in which the pull is
required.

Alternatively a stout fork can be driven in and anchored with the
1-2-3 method. The windlass portion is a forked log. The forks are
notched to take the lever up to 7 feet long.

The rope is passed round the roller a few times so that it locks
upon itself. (If fork of the roller is long the rope may pass
through the fork). This type of bush windlass has many uses.

ROPE MAKING: TIP 2 MAKE-KING?

Vines, grasses, rushes, bark, palms and animal hairs can all be
used to make rope or line.

The tendons from animals legs also make good strings, but they
tend to dry hard (very USEFUL for binding on arrow and spear
heads).

The stems of nettles make first class ropes and those of
Honeysuckle can be twisted together to make light lashing.

The stronger the fibre, the stronger the rope. Some stiff fibres
can be made flexible by steaming or by warming.

While pliable vines and other long plants stems can often be
used, as they are, for short term purposes, they may become
brittle as they dry out. A rope made from plant fibres twisted
(spun) or plaited together will be more durable.

SOURCES OF FIBRES:

NETTLES:  (URTICA DIOICA)

They are an excellent source of fibres but require preparation.
Choose the oldest available plants and those with the longest
stems.

Soak them in water for 24 hours, then lay them on the ground and
pound them with a smooth stone.

This will shred the outer surface exposing the fibrous centre.
Tease and comb to remove the fleshy matter. Hang to dry.

When dry, remove and discard the outer layer. (Spin) fibres into
long threads. Plaiting or twisting together to make as strong
rope.

PALMS:

Usually provide a good fibre. Leaves, trunks and stalks can all
be used. The husk of coconut is used commercially to make ropes
and matting.

DOGBANE:

Stems also provide good fibres, with which it is easy to work.

BARKS: 

Willow bark especially produces very good fibre. Use the new
growth from young trees.


The dead inner bark of fallen trees and tree branches should not
be overlooked. But if the tree has been down too long it may have
decayed too much, so test it for strength.

ROOTS: 

The surface roots of many trees make good lashings. Those that
run just under, or even on the surface are often pliable and
strong.

The roots of the Spruce are very strong. The Indians of North
America used them to sew Birch bark together to make canoes.

LEAVES: 

Plants such as those of the Lily family, especially Aloes have
very fibrous leaves. Test by tearing one apart.

If it separates into stringy layers it can provide fibres to make
into ropes. Soak to remove the fleshy parts.

RUSHES, SEDGES & GRASSES: 

Should be used when still green. Pick the longest specimens
available.

ANIMAL TENDONS: 

Are USEFUL for tying one thing to another. THEY MUST BE USED WET.

SPLITTING CANES:

BAMBOO, RATTAN AND OTHER TYPES OF CANES, VINES AND BARK; 

ALL need to be split to be used for any kind of rope making. If
you try to pull away thin strips, these tend to run away to
nothing.

To AVOID this problem pull on the thick part to separate it from
the thin. It saves both time and ENERGY.

TESTING FIBRES: 

Tie 2 lengths together using an overhand knot. Try pulling it
apart, using a reasonable amount of strength.

If it snaps the fibre is too brittle. If it is too smooth, it
will slip apart. Suitable fibre will "Bite ME BABY!" and hold
together well.

PLAITING ROPE:

An easy method for the less experienced is to twist and plait
strands. If you make 3 thin plaits, these can be plaited together
again for thicker, stronger rope.

If you are lengthening the strands as you plait, stagger the
places at which you feed in new fibres.

Take a bundle of fibres, tie the ends together, anchor it firmly
and split into 3 separates strands (*a) Bring the left strand
into the centre (*b) then the right over it (*c).

Then bring what is now the left strand to the centre (*d) & so on
(*e-f) Keep twisting the strands & keep the plaiting as tight and
even as you can make it.

SPINNING A ROPE:

Twist fibres together (shown here clockwise, but what is
important is to keep to the same direction).

Feed in lengths of new fibres as you go so that their ends are
staggered. When you have produced 3 lengths of fibre, anchor all
3 at one end and continue to twist each of them until quite
tight.

Temporarily fastening a toggle to the end of each will make
twisting easier. Now draw all 3 strands together and twist all
three clockwise - the opposite direction.

Continue to add and twist until you have produced the amount of
rope you needed. You will need to secure a completed section in a
cleft stick to keep it tight as you work.

Wrap the rope around a tree trunk to keep the working length
short. To make a thicker rope repeat the process with 3 ropes you
have already made or plait 3 simple ropes together.

REMEMBER: 

When making a rope try to keep the thickness of the strands equal
and even along their lengths. It is where a lay has a thin
section that the rope is most likely to break.

WHIPPING ROPES:

The end of a rope MUST BE secured in some way so that it does not
unravel. To prevent the strands from fraying, bind the rope with
twine.  

Good binding or "whipping" MUST BE tight and neat to be
effective. If it is too slack it will work loose of fall off. It
is difficult to make a good whipping with thick cord and very***?
this is prone to slip.

Experience will enable you to match the thickness to the job. Use
the whipping techniques to add a comfortable grip to handles of
axes and parangs or, thicker to replace handle of a knife.

1)   Lay a length of twine along the side of the rope, leaving
its end (*a) projecting a hand's length beyond the rope's end.

2)   Whip the twine (*b) around the rope, working towards the
end, and gradually covering the piece you have laid along it.

3)   Now form the loose end of the twine (*a) into a loop and lay
it back along the whipped section.

4)   Carry on with the whipping covering the loop until you have
     nearly reached the end of the rope.
 
5)   Now pass the end (*b) whipping through the loop and pull the
     short end (*A) tight. Trim off ends neatly.

KNOTS: ?!? NUT SO FAST ?!!! 

There is a knot for every job and it is important to select the
right one for the task at hand.

You NEVER know when you may need to tie a knot so learn their
uses and how to tie each one - well enough to tie them in the
dark and under all kinds of conditions.

Learn to untie them too. The only thing that is worse that tying
a knot that comes undone is knot that CANNOT be undone at a
crucial moment.  

In the instructions for individual knots that follow the end of
the rope or cord being used to tie the knot is referred to as the
"live end" to distinguish it from the other end of the rope or
"standing part".

NET MA-KING: SNARE MAKING TOO!:

Net can be made either by making knots along a pre-cut lengths of
line of by knitting mesh row by row. They are not only USEFUL for
fishing.

A gill net can also be hung between trees to catch bird and purse
net, made from twine can be placed over animals burrows .Use the
same technique to make a hammock from strong twine.

GIL NET:

Make this from parachute cords or from two thickness of twine.
Parachute cord consist of inner core of fine line within an outer
core.

Pull the fine inner line out and ut it into manageable and equal
lengths or cut lengths of thinner strings.

Their length will determine the dept of your net, which will be
about 3/8" that of the length of the line. Decide how wide you
want your net and set the 2 poles that distance apart.

Tie a length of parachute cord outer or thicker twine between the
2. Cut a piece of wood about 3-5cm (1 1/4in) across. Use this as
a gauge to space out the thinner vertical threads (inner core*).

Fold each length double and use the bight to make a Prusik knot
over the top cord and repeat across its length.

Slide the Prusik knots along to space them out equally using your
gauge.

For the first row, working form left to right, ignore the very
first individual strand, but take the second of the pair.

Hold it with the first strand of the next pair and tie both
together in an overhand knot. Take the remaining strand with the
first of the next pair and knot.

Continue along the line, using your gauge to control spacing.
Proceed to the next row in the same way but this time include the
outside lines to produce a row of diamonds. Continue until the
line is used up.

To finish off the bottom, stretch another thicker line across
between the supports and tie off all the infers (or thinner
strings) in pairs around it.

Carry each pair around it twice, Separate the pair and tie off
around the pair.

Complete the pair by securing the top and the bottom lines at
each corner of the net so that the net will not slip off the
ends.

Any surplus can be used for attaching the net to supports and
weights to keep it in position when in use.

KNITTING A NET:

A method suitable for nylon fishing line or nay other fine lien.
you need a horizontal sting between posts, a main gauge, and a
needle. (or just call the nearest hardware store!!!).

Make the needle (*A) about 15cm long by 2.5cm wide (6 X 1in) from
hardwood or bamboo.

Make a notch at either end and wind line around the whole needle;
or try something more traditional like the lower drawing.

The needle MUST BE smooth. The line is gradually unwound as you
make the net.

To make the net, tie a top of required length between uprights.
Begin by tying a clove hitch thinner line (*C) take the needle
behind the top line and bring it forward to make another clove
hitch (D*).

Repeat along the line, spacing the knots out with your gauge.
(E*)

When the rope row is complete go to the other side of the post
(easier than working backward) and make the next row. Make each
new loop large enough to form a square of mesh (half square at
each side). 

Take the needle through the loop of the row above from behind,
round the back of the loop and then through the front of the loop
it makes. (*F).

Adjust the depth with your gauge before you tighten. (*G). Switch
sides again and work back in the opposite direction for the next
row and continue until the nest is the required length.

Tie off the bottom line with another thicker twine using the make
knot but keeping the line straight without loops.

Leave some free line at both ends. Tie in the ends at the top
corners and the net is completed.

NET HAMMOCK:

Make a net about 75cm (2 1/2 ft) across and wider than your
height. Use a good strong twine or rope for the loop and bottom
lines- double twine would be a good idea.

The ends have to carry your weight. Leave those ends long enough
to suspend the hammock by.

Cut two spacer bard to keep the hammock open. Notch the ends and
slip the cords into the notches (*A).

To simplifying hanging the hammock you cold tie each pair of end
lines to a fixed loops such as a Bowline.

Then fix one end with a round turn and two half-hitches, the
other with a quick release knot in case you ever need to leave
the hammock in a hurry if Caesar is at the door !

FISHING KNOTS: 

HOOK ON TO GUT = TURTLE KNOT:

Soak the gut, Thread it through eye of a hook. Make an overhand
loop and pass a bight through it (A*) to form a simple slip knot.
(*B) Pass hook through slip knot (*C) & pull tight around shank.

HOOK ON TO NYLON #1 = HALF LOOP KNOT:

Tread end through eye. Make 4 turns around standing part. Pass
live end through the loop formed nest to the hook (D*). Pull taut
and sniff off fairly close to end (*E).

HOOK ON NYLON #2 = TWO TURN TURTLE KNOT:

Thread the hook. Pass the live end around the standing part to
form a loop and through it. Twist live end around side of loop.

Hold the loop and pull the twist tight. Pass the hook through the
loop. (*F) Pull on standing part to tighten loop on hook. (*G)

JAM KNOTS: (GUITAR!)

For securing improvised hook to guitar or cord.

WITH AN EYE: 

Thread gut, make 2 turns around hook and bring live end up
through turns (*H). Ease tight and test for strength.

WITHOUT AN EYE:

Make a loop around lower part of shaft. Make 2 half-hitches from
upper end downward and pass live end through lower loop (I*).
Pull on standing part to tighten.

LOOP IN NYLON #1 OR DOUBLE OVERHAND LOOP:

Double the line to make a bight. Tie an overhand in it. (*A).
Twist the end through again (*B) Pull tight (*C) and snip off
end.

LOOP IN NYLON # 2 = BLOOD BIGHT:

Form a bight. Twist the end of it back around the standing part
(*D) Bring end back through new loop (*E) Pull tight and snip off
the loose end.

JOINING LOOPS:

CAN BE USED IN NYLON LINE BUT WILL WORK FOR DIFFERENT STRONG
MATERIAL.

A fishermen's knot is recommended for gut, which probably could
not stand the strain of this method.

WITH FREE ENDS:

Pass each line through the other loop (*F) and pull tight (*G).

WITH ONLY ONE FREE:

Make loop on one line. Take the live end of the other line
through the loop, around it, and back through and then tie off
with either of the knots for hooks on to nylon.

JOINING NYLON = DOUBLE 3 FOLD BLOOD KNOTS: *SAS 174

Place ends alongside and twist one 3 ties around the other. Bring
live end back and pass it through the space where the 2 lines
cross over the other line and under its own standing end. (H*)

Do the same in the opposite direction with the other line. The
live ends end up pointing in opposite direction (*I) Ease tight.

ROPE MAKING:

#CORDELIERE:# 

Before starting making a rope you MUST use a #cordeliere#. Once
you have chosen a series of strand as long and as solid as
possible you tie them to a fix point.

At the other end you fix a stick or pen which will be used as a
#manivelle#.

Against this stick you #enserre# the strands without blocking
them and with the other hand index you turn the #manivelle# (*1).

When the torsion is strong enough you will suspend a weight which
has a hook in the middle of the #torsade do not rapproche both
ends tout en les maintenant bien tendues#. Under the weight
tension the #cordeliere# will then enrolle regularly#. (*2).

The hook permits to remove the weight without having to cut the
#cordeliere.# 

For this work you can also use a hand drill which you have
install a hook replacing the normal drill bit.

However the strands having a limited resistance do NOT exaggerate
the torsion.

To have more #souplesse# it is best to put the strands in the
water before starting your rope making.

#CORDELETTE#:

To make it you MUST first make a # rouet de cordier#. In a
pressboard or strong cardboard cut 3 plates of about 8cm square.

In each of these board make 3 holes in a triangular position. In
2 of the boards which will be used as leaders you will pass 3
wires which MUST BE fairly rigid and which will end by a hook.
The third board will be used as #passe-fils# (*4).

Here is how you build the whole thing up. Each of the 3 #fils de
caret# is tied to a fixed point.

They are then pull through the #passe-fils # holes and come to
tie themselves to the wire hooks. Each #fil de caret# can be
formed from one or many strands.

One can add many of them by tying them with a #tisserand# knot
which will loose itself in the rope making. The #fonctionement du
rouet# is very simple.

Using your left hand you grab the board which is on the side with
the hooks and with your right hand you turn the other by making a
rotation movement with each hooks.

During that time a helper will maintain the #passe-fils near la
torsade qui se forme.# 

The helper is feeding it very slowly as he feels that there is
sufficient #torsion# strength. The #torsion de caret# and its
reunion into one rope is what is referred as "commettage" or
committing. (Rope making).

HOW TO MAKE A PLATE: 

To make a tight and regular plate here are the real tricks of the
trade for us male.

When a woman makes plate for her little girl Note that she ALWAYS
tries to have the hair as stretched as possible with a fixed
point which is relative, but the less the girl moves the better
will be the plate. Now you try it.

Attach the 2 ends of a piece of strings to form a buckle without
end. Thus you obtain a #boucle d'amarrage# in which we take the
bunch of strings using a #noeud d'alouette which you tie to a fix
point such as the back of a chair upon which you sit down or a
stick, thus this way while working you can exert a constant
tension. 

When the plate gets longer you move away the # boucle d'amarrage
so as not to be forced to move away too far from your fix point.

AXE ESSENTIAL TO SURVIVAL: P*289 etc. CUT SAID THE KING!

THE MOST IMPORTANT PIECE OF SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT SECOND TO THE
SIGNAL MIRROR & SURVIVAL KIT = AXE. *** (not T-AX!)

This an IRREPLACEABLE TOOL EVEN MORE NECESSARY THAN A GUN: 

A man lost in the forest can with an axe snare nearly all games,
construct shelter, cut wood and survive where there are no
chances of doing so just with a rifle.

Even on a well know path, the axe becomes indispensable to mark
well the trees as you go on, and if you want to come back without
using a compass.

Also it can be used as a pick or hook on very hard ground, use it
as hammer etc. KEEP IT SHARP & SAFE SO AS NOT TO GET HURT.

CAUTION:

This most important piece of survival equipment is also the most
abused. In the battle of man against nature the odds greatly
favour the person who is able to utilise available equipment to
the full and knows how to care for it.

It has been found that some persons have failed to survive even
under reasonably good conditions not from lack of equipment but
from failure to care for it and use it to the best advantage.

BEFORE USING AN AXE ALWAYS MAKE THE FOLLOWING CHECKS:

1)   ALWAYS CHECK HEAD FOR TIGHTNESS OF HANDLE.

If it is loose either drive the wedge further home or make a new
wedge using hard wood.

Soaking the head is another method but it is not recommended for
winter time as ice may form on the handle and inside the head
allowing the head to slide off and cause possible injury.

To drive the head further into the head. Stir the end of the
handle, not the head of the axe.

2)   ALWAYS CHECK FOR SHARPNESS:

A dull axe can be DANGEROUS for 2 reasons. First it will not bite
properly and will tend to glance off the wood being cut. Secondly
when blunt it IS NECESSARY to use more force which usually means
a sacrifice of control.

3)   Check that the handle is not cracked or split. A serious cut
of sliver might be received

4)   When carrying an axe BE SURE that the sharp edge is held
AWAY from the body so that in the event of a fall there will then
be less chance of injury.

HOW TO SHARPEN AXE etc.:

To do the job well you MUST use a file & a wet stone, if no file
then the stone will do the job but not as good. Use the file
every 2 or 3 days and the wet stone is used after you have use
your axe.

Start by wetting the blade & sharpen it with the file by doing
rotary movements towards the exterior of the cutting edge.

To soften the slicing edge one MUST make rotary movements
starting at the centre of the blade going toward the edge.

So to keep your axe sharp, hone it regularly with a sharpening
stone and touch up the edge when needed with an 8 inch flat mil
file.

For honing hold the head of the axe in one hand in such a way
that the handle points up away from you & rub the dry stone over
the edge with a circular motion from one end of the edge to the
other.

Then turn the axe over with the handle now pointing down and hone
the other side in the same way until the edge is so keen that it
no longer shows up as a bright line when you look at it.

For filing, lean the axe head against a log or against a peg
driven in the ground. Kneel on one knee and place your other foot
on the handle to keep the axe steady.

Place the file on the edge & push down hard. File the whole edge
with long even straight strokes working along the blade from one
end of the edge to the other, soon you will get the hang of it.

Holding the iron in full hands be very weary about the handle,
the thumb under it and the fingers* doing pressure on the grin
stone as near as the biting edge as possible.

The filing is done in 3 movements, rotation of a wet stone,
pressure of the fingers lateral moving #altering on the biting of
the ground stone.#

We recommend to make the grind stone in the sense of the arrow as
fig 1 p*289 however with a certain habit  with an in reverse
flashing against the iron the grind stone will absorb most of the
#morfil#.

The biting edge MUST NOT be too sharp, obtuse nor #fuyant# The
fig shows 12 shows by exaggeration the main 2 faults to AVOID AB
* B where *C is normal. Handle with soft wood the angle can be
more #aigu# than hard wood * pix 1 shows the #morfil#.

It is a #fine pelliculle# that clings to the iron thus the only
way to get ride of it is the use of small oiled up stone or water
stone as the harvester use.

SHARPENING: USUALLY DONE IN 3 STEPS:

1)   You MUST or should use a grind stone to reduce or thin the
centre of the biting edge but not on all its width.

You MUST let about 1/2 inch on each side of the edge at its
natural thickness. This will make it more solid and wood chips
will come off easier.

The grind stone MUST BE watered down A LOT so as not to permit
the steel to heat up.

This is why one MUST NEVER sharpen an axe nor a knife on an
electrical grindstone since it turns too fast and heats up the
steel and will ruin the blade strength.

2)   Second step is the file, a flat one about 8 inches long with
     a handle is desirable.

Placing the axe in a vice and facing it, hold the file handle in
your right hand and the end of the file in your left hand
preferably protected by a strong glove.

Then you file from up and down starting behind the biting edge
going forward in a 10 degree angle.

#The file MUST bite only in the movement up going down and not to
touch the steel in its down upward movement#.

Once a side is done then turn the blade in the vice and start all
over again starting this time from the front part of the cutting
edge going toward its back & in the same angle as before.

3)   The third step is using a soft stone. Letting the axe in the
vice start to polish the edge using the rougher side of the stone
then finish it with the softer side which you then add a little
oil.

You sharpen in the same direction as when using the file but this
time do it in a circular fashion & with full contact, not letting
the stone off the blade. Such a blade is less DANGEROUS & much
more efficient than a badly sharpened one.

One last precaution, MAKE SURE that the sheath is very strong &
thick so as to protect it from stones or other steel. You MUST
also have a spare handle because you might need it.

HOW TO SHARPEN SNOW KNIFE:

To sharpen a snow knife all you need is a file, but for all
others use a wet stone, place the blade slightly inclined on the
stone and push toward the exterior then change side. You will get
a better result by gradually diminishing the pressure.

If you have no wet stone any piece of sandstone will do. A grey
stone will give better result than pure quartz.

Use any crystal stone except marble which is too soft. Rub the 2
granite piece together till they become soft then use them as
whetstone.

USE OF AXE:

You would learn more from a good axe man in one day than many
weeks by  yourself. Don't try to cut a tree with a single blow.

IT IS MORE IMPORTANT TO AIM WELL AND TO KEEP A GOOD RHYTHM THAN
TO USE TOO MUCH STRENGTH.

If you use it correctly the axe own weight will give you all the
power needed to do the job.

MAKE SURE BEFORE using the axe that NOTHING on top or sides
hinder your movements. ALWAYS check for branches or liana that
could defect the blow and may hurt or kill you.

USING AN AXE: TIP 2:

Most people have a natural prime hand and swing. Use an axe in a
way that's comfortable to you, swinging it an ark that feels
natural with a firm grip and ALWAYS away from your body, legs and
hand.

MAKE SURE that, if you miss the tree or other point of aim and
follow through, the axe will not strike anyone else. Don't throw
an axe on the ground. Sheath it or bury the blade in a log

WHEN FALLING A TREE PROCEDURE TO DO: 

Before beginning clear the tree of lower limbs and remove the
underbrush from around the bottom of the tree. This is to ensure
that the axe is not deflected during the swing.

Check your distance form the tree to AVOID under reaching or
overreaching.

Overreaching can result in breaking the axe handle and under
reaching in a cut foot. Take up a comfortable stance MAKING SURE
that both feet are firmly set.

The first cut should be made on the side of the tree facing the
direction of the desired fall often decided by the lean of the
tree. This cut should be not more than half-way through the tree.

The back cut should be started slightly above and opposite the
first cut. It is SAFER to cut the tree off not over a foot above
the ground. (Below 1 feet)

ALWAYS keep the axe handle low and parallel to the ground where
the blades strikes the cut.

When using short handled axes or hand axes bend carefully at the
hips or kneel on one knee.

When splitting wood do not lay the piece to be split on the
ground but support it so as to AVOID chopping into ground, thus 
blunting the axe or prevent injury to leg or feet.

AXE HEAD OFF: BROKEN HANDLE!

Using an axe takes practice and while gaining experience axe
handle often get broken-usually because the head misses the
target and the handle takes all the blow (*A).

To remove a broken handle, the easiest way is to put in a fire,
burying as much as possible of the metal in the earth to prevent
it loosing temper- single-headed (*B) doubled headed (C*).

Since it is very difficult to remove a broken handle from the axe
head; THE BEST METHOD is to place the axe head in the ground and
to burn the handle.

You bury the biting edge down to the height of the handle. Make a
small fire on the head of the axe.

The biting edge protected by the ground will not be affected and
the handle heated white by the fire will come off with no trouble
at all.

THE OPERATION MUST BE DONE VERY QUICKLY TO SUCCEED WELL; but MAKE
SURE that the earth is WET surrounding the axe iron. The wet
earth prevents the slicing edge to loose its hardness.

MAKE SURE that you put the whole axe after in cold water. Or have
spare handle then insert it in the axe MAKING SURE that the head
is well perpendicular to the handle.

To insert the handle, hold it using the left hand and hit the
butt with another axe or hammer or stone if need be, the handle
will come up by itself very well.

This operation MUST BE done quickly and then as soon as possible
put the whole axe iron in cold water.

Don't hit the head down on the handle but the other way around,
you will then note that the end of the handle comes off the axe
by a few inches this is to allow the insertion of a "corner"
which will prevent the head from coming off.

If you don't have a "corner" then you have to make one up, ITS
ESSENTIAL. Use the excess part that you cut off for this purpose.
Use hard wood only as material.

#Now using a hacksaw you cut off the excess but it is good
practice to let the handle overshoot by a few lines should you
need to adjust the "corner" once more later on.

This is where you get your "corner" from the excess handle part
that you cut off you use part of it as your "corner" to insert in
the slit and hammer it down in the axe head. #

NOTE ON BROKEN TOOL HANDLE OFF:

Nothing is easier to remove a broken tool handle which has
blocked the head.

Cut the handle as near the head of the tool as possible, bore a
hole deep enough in the broken part of the handle and in this
hole pour some kerosene  which you then light up.

The wood being impregnated of kerosene will burn easily and all
you then have to do is to remove the ashes and fix a new handle.

However I would prudent to use such a method for an axe since the
fire would probably affect the tempering quality of the steel.

AXE NATURAL HANDLE:

*If you MUST replace a handle use a straight handle rather than a
curb one, you will save time and effort. Give a rough shape to
the handle and make a slit at the end which will receive the
blade.

Once the handle well in place strengthen the whole thing by
inserting a thin slice of wood in the slit that you have made,
try the axe and knock in again the slice of wood to make it
stronger holding.

AXE ADDED NOTE:

*The usual 1 1/4 pound axe on a hickory handle will be light
enough to carry & to do the work intended to whereas the 3/4 axe
is a two handle tool and is designed for cutting larger logs for
pioneering projects.

Keep the edge or "bit" sharp not just sharp enough to chew but to
bite and keep the handle tight, if it gets loose drive in the
wedge harder.

NEVER LET YOUR AXE TOUCH THE GROUND. Driving into the ground will
nick it & leaning it against the ground will rust it.

ALWAYS have a chopping block under the wood you are chopping or
splitting and when you are through using it for short period
stick in the chopping block or put it back in its sheath.

On a hike carry the axe in its sheaf or lashed to your pack and
carry it around camp by holding the handle near the heads with
the edge down and out.

HOW TO USE AN AXE: 

The old backwoodsmen were as expert with their axe as they were
with their rifles and they were just as careful in the selection
of these told as they were in the selection of their arms. They
NEVER even lent their axe to anyone.

Many a times I have seen them pick up a store axe sight along the
handle and then cast it aside contemptuously aside.

They demanded of their axes that the cutting edge should be
exactly in line with the point in the centre of the butt end of
the handle.

They also kept their axe so sharp that they could whittle with
them like one can with a good jack knife furthermore they allowed
no one but themselves to use their own particular axe.  

It is not expected that the modern vacation pioneer becomes an
expert consequently the few simple rules and suggestions will be
here given to guide the amateur.

And he MUST depends upon his own judgement and common sense to
work out the minor problems which will beset him in the use of
this tool.

All edges tools are DANGEROUS when in the hands of "chumps"
DANGEROUS to themselves and to any one else who is near them.

For instance only a chump? will use an axe when its head is loose
and is in DANGER of flying off the handle. (NO joke or pun here!
It happened to me once, I did not check it OOPS).

Only a chum? will use his best axe to cut roots or sticks lying
flat on the ground where he is liable to hit stones and other
objects and take off the edge of the blade. Only a chum? will
leave an axe lying in the ground for people to stumble over.

If there is a handy stump at your camp and you are through using
it, stick the blade into the top of the stomp and leave the axe
sticking there, where it will be safe from injury.

REMEMBER before chopping down a tree or before using an axe at
all to see that there is enough space above and below and around
to enable you to swing the axe clear without the DANGER or
striking bushes or overhanging branches which may deflect the
blade & cause accidents more or less serious.

TREE FELLING: 

Check overhead for dead branches, which may fall and injure you,
and for hornet's nest. Clear the branches or creepers which could
deflect your blows.

If roots or the bole spread out at the bottom build a platform to
reach thinner-diameter trunk and reduce the effort of chopping.
Ensure such a platform is stable and that you can jump off it
quickly if the tree falls the wrong way! 

Work at a comfortable height and try to cut downward at 45
degrees, although every now and then a horizontal blow is needed
to clear the cut.

Cut from both sides of the tree, first chopping out a notch an
angle of about 45 degrees and another on the opposite side at a
lower level, on the side to which you want the tree to fall (*a).

Do not cut through more than half the tree BEFORE starting the
other notch.

If two people are at work on opposite sides this is particularly
important.

A leaning trunk or a tree with most of its branches one side will
fall in the direction of its weight and the placing of the cuts
will not affect it.

A steady rhythm of blows will cut more effectively than trying to
make a fewer big blows.

If you put too much effort behind the axe your aim will suffer
and you will soon tire. Let the weight of the axe do the work.

Alternating the angle of stroke will prevent the axe from
jamming. Too steep an angle will cause the axe to glance off the
trunk (*A) Dead on will make it jam, or be inefficient(*B) Aim
for 45 degrees (*C).

DON'T STAND BEHIND A TREE AS IT FALLS: (Timber-her!?!) 

For the boughs may strike those standing tree causing the butt to
shoot back or kick an many a woodsman has lost his life from the
kick of falling tree.

Before chopping a tree down, select the place where it is to
fall, a place where it will not be liable to lodge in another
tree on its way down. DON'T try to fall a tree against the wind.

Cut a notch on the side of the tree facing the direction you wish
it to fall and cut it half way to the trunk. Make the notch or
kerf large enough to AVOID pinching your axe in it.

If you discover that the notch is going to be too small cut a new
notch X some inches above your first one.

Then split off the piece X Y between the two notches and against
make the notch X Z and split off the piece Z W Y until you make
room for the axe to continue your chopping.

When the first kerf* is finished begin another one on the
opposite side of the tree a little higher that the first one.

When the wood between the two notches becomes too small to
support the weight of the tree, the top of the tree will begin to
tremble and waiver and give you ample time to step to one side
before it falls.

(It is good to yell Timber specially if there are people around
so as to warn them of the falling tree.)

If the tree is inclined in the opposite direction from which you
wish it to fall.

It is sometimes possible to block the #kerf# on the inclined side
and by driving the wedge over the block force the tree to fall in
the direction desired but it is DANGEROUS, and if the tree
inclines too far this can not be done.

There was a chestnut tree standing too close to my log house and
leaning toward the building. Under normal circumstances felling
this tree would cause it to strike the house with all the weight
of its trunk and branches.

So I asked a old woodman who looked at it for several days doing
zip until one day he brought out his old trusty axe and made the
chips fly by. Soon the chestnut was lying prone on the ground
pointing away from the house.

What this old backwoodsman did was to wait until a strong wind
had sprung up blowing in the direction that he wanted the tree to
fall and his skilful chopping with the aid of the wind placed the
tree exactly where he wished it.

TO REMOVE BRANCHES:

Cut off branches from the outside of the fork (*A) not the inside
(*B). Very high branches can be removed by attaching strings to
the saw toggle to give extra reach. This is DANGEROUS.

Keep your eye on the branch and be prepared to jump out of the
way. Go RAMBO GO!

SPLITTING LOGS:

Stand behind a large log with feet well apart. Swing down to cut
the side away from you.

DO NOT CHOP DOWNWARD:

To split a smaller log, angle against another log.

DO NOT PUT YOUR FOOT ON IT:

Alternatively, hold smaller log against cutting edge of axe and
bring both down together on to a larger log. (Not to be tried
holding too short a log for safety!) If in doubt split larger
logs with a wedge and rock.

DO NOT EVER HOLD WOOD UPRIGHT IN YOUR HAND AND ATTEMPT TO SPLIT
WITH AXE.

USING A FLEXIBLE SAW:

ALWAYS use a flexible saw so that the cut opens up rather than
closes tight on the saw, causing it to jam.

At all times keep the wire taut pulling it in a straight line, at
an angles. With two people the rhythm MUST BE CAREFULLY
maintained.

If a kink is produced in the saw it may break. It is usually
easier for a single person to cut a log by pulling upwards.

Support the log to keep it off the ground and give it an angle to
keep the cut open. Alternatively, to remove a branch pull down
from above the head.      THIS COULD BE DANGEROUS.

HOW TO SPLIT LOGS?  MAKE SHAKES SPLITS OR CLAPBOARDS?:

HOW TO CHOP A LOG IN HALF?:
HOW TO FLATTEN A LOG AND SOME DO NOT !:

Logs are usually split by the use of wedges.

But it is possible to split them by the use of 2 axes.

To split with the axe strike it smartly into the wood at the
small end and so as to start a crack, then sink the axe in the
crack A.

Next take the second axe and strike it in line with the first one
at B. If this is done properly it should open the crack wide
enough to release the first axe without trouble which may then be
struck in the log.

In this manner it is possible to split a straight grained piece
of timber without the use of wedges. The first axe should be
struck at the smaller or top end of the log.

To split a log with wedges take your axe in your left hand and
club in your right hand and by hammering the head of your axe
with the club drive the blade into the small end of the log far
enough to make a crack deep enough to hold the thin edge of your
wedges. Make this crack all the way across the end of the log.

Put two wedges in the end of the log as in the diagram and drive
them until the wood begins to split and crack along the sides of
the log, then follow up this crack with other wedges, until the
log is split in half.

While ordinarily wood splits easily enough with the grain it is
very difficult to drive an axe through the wood at right angle to
the grain as shown in diagram to the left.

Hence, if the amateur be chopping wood if he will strike a
slanting blow, like the one to the right.

He will discover that the blade of his axe will enter the wood,
whereas in the first position where he strikes the grain at right
angles it will only make a dent in the wood and bounce the axe
back.

But striking a diagonal blow he MUST take care not to slant his
axe too far or the blade of the axe my only scoop out a shallow
chip and swing around DANGEROUSly & seriously injuring the axe
man or some one else.

If it is desired to cut off the limb off the limb of a tree don't
disfigure the tree by tearing the bark down, trees are becoming
scarce.

If you cut part way through the limb on the underside see right
hand diagram fig 12l and then cur partly through from the top
side, the limb will fall off without tearing the bark down the
trunk, but if you cut only from the top.

Sooner or later the weight of the limb will tear it off and make
an ugly wound down the front of the tree which in time decays
makes a hollow and ultimately destroys the tree.

A neatly cut branch on the other hand when the stub has been
sheered off close to the bark will heal up leaving only an
eye-mark on the bark to tell where the limb once grew.

If it is desired to chop a log into shorter pieces, REMEMBER to
stand on the log to do your chopping.

This will do away with the necessity of rolling the log over when
you want to chop on the other side.

Don't forget to make the notch C D the same as A B; in other
words the distance across the notch should equal the diameter of
the log.

If you start with too narrow a kerf or notch before you finish
you will be compelled to widen it.

To flatten a log you MUST score and hew it. Scoring consist in
making a number of notches C D E F G H J etc. to the depth of the
line A B.

Hewing it is the act of chopping off or splitting off the pieces 
A C & C D & D E etc leaving the surface flat which was known
among the pioneers as puncheon and with which they floored their
cabins before the advent of the saw mill & milled lumber.

Perhaps it would be advisable to the amateur to take a chalk line
and snap it from A to B so that he may be certain to have the
flat surface level.

The expert axe man will do this by what he calls "sensation".
(FEELLING!)

It might be well to say here that if you select for puncheons
wood with a straight grain and wood that will split easily you
will simplify your task but even mean stubborn wood may be
flattened by scoring and hewing.

If the ridges and furrows of the bark run straight up and down
the wood will have a corresponding straight grain but if they are
spiral the  wood will split waney* or not at all.

So when you try to quarter a log with which to chink your cabin
don't select a *waney log. To quarter a log split it along the
dotted line.

In the Main the woodsmen are adept in making shakes, splits
clapboards or shingles by the use of only an axe and splitting
them out of the billets of wood from 4 to 6 feet long.

The core of the log is first cut out and then the pieces are
split out having wedge-shaped edges as shown by the lines marked.

In making either the boards or the shakes, if it is found that
the wood splinters down into the body of the log too far or into
the board or shake too far.

You MUST start at the other end of the billet or log and split it
up to meet the first split or take hold of the split or board
with your hands and deftly tear it from the log ,an art which
only experience can teach.

We caution the reader against chopping firewood by resting one
end of the stick to be cut on a log and the other end on the
ground and then striking this stick a sharp blow with the axe in
the middle.

The effect of this often is to send the broken piece gyrating
into the air as shown by the dotted line and many a wood chopper
lost an eye from a blow inflicted by one of these flying pieces.
Many men have been blinded this way so BEWARE.

ADDED NOTES ON AXE CHOICE:

IF ONE WAS LEFT TO CHOOSE WHICH OBJECT WOULD HELP HIM MOST IN
SURVIVAL, DON'T HESITATE TO CHOOSE THE AXE.

ONE MUST AVOID TO BUY AXE WHICH HEAD IS LESS THAN 2 LBS. These
are toys which have NO VALUE IN SURVIVAL or for sporting needs.

The ideal weight is 2 1/2 lbs not counting the handle. A 3 lbs is
better in frozen wood but heavier to handle for the average user.

One MUST also consider the biting edge and MAKE SURE that the
edge is no smaller than 4 inches wide and neither be too thin nor
too thick.

In the first case it would break easy and in the second the
sharpening would be difficult to maintain. The IDEAL axe one may
find is what is called the Hudson Bay type.

HANDLE CHOICE: (Dear Jane!)

Now as for the handle, in principle one should not buy a painted
one which could or would hide defects such as knots which would
weaken the handle. The best one are from # Noyer# or Oak.

Second is too choose the handle the right length, even if the
short handle may be easier to carry around the long one is much
preferable to have the most efficiency.

The length vary according to your height so a simple method to
discover the proper length is: 

Let your hand drop on your side and measure from the centre of
your hand down to the ground, this is the length that the handle
should have for you.

If it is longer you will have tendency to overreach which is very
hard on the handle and can break it, if too short then under
reach which is DANGEROUS for your feet or legs.

The handle MUST BE straight and not curve to right or left. To
discover this default, let your axe rest flat on its head, with
the biting edge facing upward and align it with the handle.

If the handle shows a curve to right or left then choose another
handle. The handle MUST also not be either too big or too small.

It MUST fit well into the hand, this is not a pick. Too big a
handle would not have the # souplesse# and too small would be too
#fragile.#

Once your axe all set then you can paint the head all the way to
edge using a bright phosphorescent colour which makes it easier
to locate at night or simply prevent rust as well.

Also the handle should be painted from the head down a few inches
which would prevent the water or snow to penetrate in the handle
near the head and to make it rot.

Beside if the handle has a tendency to come off the head one
quick look would show the non painted area.

MAINTENANCE OF THE HANDLE: 

Even with a good handle fit it comes after a time that the iron
starts to come off a bit as we use it.

You MUST then #shake the iron by hitting the butt against a wood
log#. The handle has a certain sharpness at the butt thus you
MUST BE CAREFUL when hitting the wood log which could split the
handle.

Thus it is preferable to saw a small amount of this butt so that
the hit will have a straight impact. One keeps all the
flexibility of the handle by oiling it with Linseed oil, the iron
is greased when rain to AVOID rust.

HOW TO BEST USE YOUR AXE:

WINTER USE:

THE IRON SPLITS IN COLD WEATHER:

YOU MUST WARM UP THE IRON ON A SMALL FIRE FOR A LITTLE WHILE
BEFORE USING IT.

THIS IS A SERIOUS WARNING if it is real cold the axe till split
like glass, so warm it up over a fire, or in hot water or even
between your legs before using it.

1)   Don't attack a piece of wood in a perpendicular fashion but
     use an angle of about 60 degrees.

2)   Hit alternatively left and right of the cut.

3)   Lean the wood to cut on a log fig 20 the hit MUST bear on D
     point & opposed to point C. 

The inconvenient to carry the blow outside the leaning point,
since the wood moves and the iron does not bite as easily.

4)   Without a leaning log one can strike in the air.

5)   If you split lengthwise, work against a hard wood block. 

A)   NEVER work on soft earth directly. It would also risk to
     have the iron hit the ground & loose its sharpness.

B)   NEVER use a rock or piece of steel as leaning post for
     cutting.  

6)   NEVER hold the wood with the hand or the foot on the side
     where the axe can slip giving very serious injury.

7)   One old woodsman method to cut or split a log is to hit the
log on its head then twisting around the axe and the piece of
wood you then hit the striking leaning post with the axe head,
this will split the log in no time.

FALLING TREE ADDED NOTE: 

Make a cut in a form of a coin as low as possible and on the side
that you want your tree to fall.

This cut MUST attain and overpass the hearth of the wood fig 27.
The depth of the cut will serve as a rotation point for the fall
of the tree.

Thus its orientation has a VERY GREAT IMPORTANCE specially for
big trees.

Now do a second cut on the opposite face of the trunk and a
little over the first one.

When this cut will be sufficient the tree should fall by itself.
Timber. This second cut can be advantageously done or replace by
a saw cut.

NEVER STAND BEFORE OR BEHIND A FALLING TREE, IT WOULD BE YOUR
LAST.

NEVER lend your axe, it is too personal like your tooth brush.

CAMP WOOD VICE: 

MOST WOOD SCULPTING MUST BE SOLIDLY FIXED IN A #VISE.

KNIFE:

If the axe is essential to survival, so is the knife. Here again
there is no bargaining, you have to pay for quality, one of the
best knife all around on the market is the old Swiss knife but do
take the one with a magnifying glass type its more USEFUL.

There is also the new type of Rambo knife with compass inside the
top but it is your survival friend with its saw blade.

SHARPNESS IS THE KEY TO THE USE: FOR ALL TOOLS, AXE OR KNIFE !:

AVOID however to give too much a sharpness to the edge for it
would dull out faster. NEVER let rust start on any tool it is the
end of it all!

Oil your saw after use and rap it with paper to hang. For rust
kills the sharpness eating away as acid would.

PICK-SHOVEL ARMY STYLE:*

Lately they have come up with the best one pliable, with saw
blade, hammer, but they are hard to find, so check old army
store. Its purpose as weapon of survival are too numerous to
list.

#MALLET#:

Another indispensable tool in a camp easy to make on spot. Often
one use a big knotted stick from which one will refine one of the
ends so as to have a better grip.

Also using a hard wood log which you pierce with a # tarrier# and
you fix a handle to it as you would for an axe.

The corner piece MUST BE put in perpendicularly # au fil du bois
du mallet # other wise the #mallet# will split open. As for the
wire it is placed parallel to the # fil du mallet#. After a while
you make another one Crusoe.

MONKEY BRIDGE:

A classic type which can be done over cliff, river etc, THERE IS
NO LIMIT FOR LENGTH. The carrying of this bridge is only limited
by the solidity of the ropes.

Don't forget that even the best secured rope will be submitted to
a pressure downward as soon as someone will walk on it, thus MAKE
SURE that the carrying rope is at least at 1.50 meter from the
water level.

MATERIAL:

# A dozen of perches pour les chevalets. Des boulons ou 12 cordes
a brelage#. A big rope or cable diam: 20-26mm and of 30 to 50
meters long.

2 ropes of 16mm in diameter and 30-50 meters long for the hand
rails. (mains courantes). 100 meter of ropes of 6 to 10 mm pour
les entretoises ou commandes.

Wooden pickets and a heavy hammer. A ball of small string which
will be used to launch the anchoring on the other side.#

CONSTRUCTION: 

The best method if you are numerous is first to divide into 3
teams who will work simultaneously on the construction of the
#chevalet et tablier otherwise do one step at the time.

BRION BRIDGE: 

The #tablier itself is made from longines# which are laid in
couple #sur 2 traverse de pales# to which they are bolted.

Don't exceed #une porte libre de 4 m maximum#*. As for the
#platelage# we will use #dosses ou rondins nailed on the
longines. Un lasso fixe aux jambes de biques will replace the
hand rail.#

NOTE:

This Brion bridge is made for a short camp and its construction
fairly quick about 4 hours for a small team does not make it a
strong construction over a long period of time but with some
modifications one can use this principle of bridge over a river
which level of water will NEVER go higher than 1 meter.

In which case you will replace #le noeud de tete de bique by
bolts and you will install lateral entretoise over the tablier so
as not to retain any objects or branches brought over by the
river itself.#

BRANCHES OFF:

The use of your axe to cut branches off MUST ALWAYS be done from
the top of the tree going toward the bottom. Cut the branch from
above and ALWAYS using the tool being parallel to the trunk.

SHARPENING AND SQUARING LOGS: 

ALWAYS do these operations on a piece of log or tree stump NEVER
directly on the ground.

Have your legs widely set apart yet being at ease in front of the
log, using your left hand you hold the log in a slant and from
your right hand you hit it vertically tracing from the start the
height of the cut or squaring to do.

It is by doing this kind of work that you will quickly see if
your axe is well sharpened, If the sharpening is too #bomber, the
axe will ricocher# on the side, if the axe does not cut the
#copeaux seront laineux#

Right at the start of you first axe cuts you will make the 4
faces of your point and then make one more in octagonal way.

Don't hit by turning the log every time you strike the axe. Use
the same technic when doing squaring the logs.

#MEPLAT#:

Done by axe or plane and consist in giving a flat surface to a
stick or log that has to be put over another one thus increasing
its holding.

BE CAREFUL when doing a #meplat# over a log on the ground that
you control well your axe which will have a tendency to do
rebounds thus endangering your legs quite a bit.

SAWING:

Using the saw to build a table for many reasons, the ends will be
cleaner, the length will be more precise, the wood will not split
and it will be a lot faster.

You see the photo will tell you how to hold your saw so as to
have a better control and more sawing power.

SINCE A SAW IS ALWAYS HELD WITH THE HAND AS LOW AS POSSIBLE
CLOSEST TO THE BLADE. 

Practically speaking your palm hand is like the prolongation of
the saw blade.***pix need

To start a saw cut on PRECISION work ALWAYS REMEMBER to leave the
pencil mark ON the wood to cut.

The first saw cut is done by pulling the saw toward you directing
the blade by letting it Glide along the nail of your left thumb
while maintaining the # phalange perpendicular# to the log to
cut.

SHARPENING A PLANE:

ALWAYS sharp as all tools, first sharpen it on a grind stone with
water then use an oil stone. Do not hesitate to often refresh the
cutting edge of a plane.

Also VERY IMPORTANT to sharpen only one side of the plane the
other side ALWAYS stays intact.

WOOD WORKING IN TEAM OF 2:

It is the best method, it multiply the precision and the strength
of the blows, and the accident risk is nearly nil.

TO CUT A SMALL LOG WITH PRECISE #MEASUREMENT#:

Lay the piece on the main log with the left hand, place the axe
blade exactly on the mark and at a signal the helper hits ALWAYS
in cross ways against the tool.

NOTCHING EXACTLY A LOG:

Place the axe #obliquely# on the wanted spot while holding it
with your 2 hands.

A helper will give strong blows. Start over again at the right
and left side of the notch to make it bigger. ALWAYS hit the
hammer #en croix with the axe.

WEDGES AND SLEDGE HAMMER: 

After the axe the most USEFUL tool to the pioneer is the wedge.
The iron ones are the best but heavy and cumbersome to carry. It
would be best to make them as you go along the 2 or 3 corners
that you will need along.

ALWAYS use hard wood as much as possible. The wedge is made at
the end of a big stick and sawed off the length needed at the
last moment.

Note: The #biseau# angle B which gives more solidity at the tip.

Note:     Also the #chanfrain# around the head of the wedge, thus
the blow are NEVER made on the borders of the wedge which would
risk to split them. At the same time as you need wedge you need a
sledge hammer.

DAMPNESS OF WOOD SCALE:

Wood burns well and can be worked well when it is dry. As you cut
it down it can have more than 50% in humidity. So in average;

After 6 months cut it still has 30-40%  Humidity!
12 months ..20-30%...
18 months ..15-25% ...

After such a time the natural drying process ends.

BURNING POWER SCALE:

When dry a # hetre# has a power of 4,000 #calories so with 10%
humidity it has only 3,580 ........

20%  3,200 ........
30%  2,900 ........
Green  50% 2,450 ........

     HERE IS A SCALE PER KILOGRAM OF DRY WOOD HEATING POWER:

PINE      4,700 TO 4,500
#EPICEA#  4,500 TO 4,200
#HETRE#   4,500 TO 4,000
#BOULEAU# 4,300 TO 4,200

#SAPIN#        4,300 AVERAGE
#MELEZE CHENE# 4,100 .......
#FRENE AULNE#  4,000 .......
#MAPLE#        3,800 .......

SOIL TYPE AND WOOD TYPE:

CLAY 3 TYPES:

White one used as paint all the way to pottery making. Grey or
blue used best to fill in diverse hole or cracks as well as the
bread oven or fireplace bricks. Red one used with the first two
to give better decoration value.

HOW TO EASILY DESTROY A STUMP: 

Once install in the forest or near the water for a certain time,
some stump badly placed can be a nuisance to your set up. So
without using dynamite, or bazooka; Rambo they gotta go.

A good way to do so it to pierce several holes in the stump
fairly deep using a wooden drill and to fill those holes with
*nitrate de potassium in powder form, grind it if you have to.

Next you cover those holes with a little amount of clay to stop
the rain washing out the saltpetre and you wait a few days so
that it is sucked in by the sap in all the parts of the stump.

Once you think that it is time you then light a fire on the stump
using some branches, the fire will go deep even to the deepest
part of the stump with the help of the oxygen brought by the
nitrate, then it is a child play to remove the charred parts.

#POINTES# AND NAILS: *

Planting a #pointe# without precaution nearly ALWAYS will split
the wood at its end.

So to AVOID this just tap the #pointe# with a hammer before
hammering it in. This way the #pointe# will smash the wooden
fibre rather than spreading them apart and your wood will not
split at the end.

If the wood is very delicate then you should drill a hole into it
before using the #pointe# or nail. If you MUST nail a long *point
in hard wood grease it first.

Just like you should do the same with screws using soap before
screwing them in the wood, they go in like a charm when soapy.

BENDING NAILS:  

Better use a longer nail then too short, however if you don't do
it correctly the nail will be a constant DANGER to rip hands or
pants.

So in order to AVOID those scratches, place a big nail near the
nail to bend then hammer it down this way no scratches and lot
stronger.

PULLING NAIL OFF:

Using your hammer is fine but if the nail is too strong then put
a piece of wood underneath the hammer will do the trick. If this
does not work then use a crow bar to do the job best.

PICKETS:

Here is in A* a good and a bad picket. The good one has its end
cut *obliquely so as to push off the stones as it goes in the
earth. A sharp picket transforms itself quickly into a brush.

A good picket also has a #chanfrein# around the head so that the
hammering is done on the hearth of the wood only and will not
split it off as we see in a bad one.

STICKING A POLE EASILY: 

Hammering it down without help will only make it bend in all
directions but not go down, so use some help to hold it down
along its length and it won't vibrate and go down fast.

STURDY ASSEMBLY: 

A wooden frame will eventually deform itself but if you reinforce
it by a sling then the square become 2 triangle and will not
deform itself. The wooden sling can be replaced by 2 strong
strings or rope put diagonally.

NOTE ABOUT WOODWORKING:

To generalise lets say that ALL woodwork done in camp MUST come
down to triangular elements combined between them.*

#CALFATER DES JOINTS#:

This means to fill in the gap so that the water does not come in.

An easy way to do this is by melting down with the use of a sand
bath a mixture of resin and tar, this product is then put while
hot using a wooden or steel spatula then let it harden.

The sand bath is any container made of steel filled with sand in
which is tucked the mastic pot. The whole thing is put over a
good fire with a lid.

TOOLS:

Before humans discovered metals and learned to work them, tools
were made from stone-especially flint, obsidian, quartz, chertz
and other glassy rocks, bone and other natural objects.

Stones can make efficient hammers, alone or lashed on to a handle
if a shape that can be easily secured.

The glassy stones can be knapped (chipped and flaked) to make a
sharp edge; some other kinds of stone, such as slate, can also
produce a knife edge, though they may not have the strength to be
used for percussive blows.

The best start for a stone implement is a split cobble, perhaps
from a stream bed, or split by a blow from another smooth, hard
pebble, so that a flat face is produced.

The blow should be at an angle of less than 90 degrees or the
shock will be absorbed within the pebble.

Once the split is made, other layers can be broken off. Flakes
can be removed around the edge of the flat face by hitting
edge-on with another stone.

Delicate work can be produced by hitting and pressing with a
softer tool such as deer's antler. If a flat face is produced
end-on blows can make thin blades.

Making stone implements is not a skill that can be quickly
acquired and you may have to be very persistent.

Bones can be used as tools-antlers and horns make USEFUL digging
implements gougers and hammers. They can also be cut with stone
tools or ground with coarse stones.

You may have the advantage over the prehistoric tool-makers,
whose skills you are copying, of having a knife or other metal
implement to help you to carve bone.

Some woods, such as the Mulga tree of Australia, used by the
Aborigines for spears, are hard enough to make effective blades
for hunting and cutting.

STONE TOOLS:

One technique for producing an axe-head: First the stone is split
and the edges partly shaped.

Then a platform is created on one side from which a series of
flakes can be struck vertically down. The final shaping can then
be done.

Hit with a softer stones, and hit and press small flakes away
with a piece of antler or hard wood. It may take a lot of
patience to acquire tool making skills but even practice flakes
may be USEFUL as scrapers, for cutting edges & as arrowheads.

BONE TOOLS:

A shoulder blade provides a good shape for an effective saw.
First it should be split in half, then teeth can be cut along it
with a knife.

A small bone scraper could also be made, the edge ground sharp.
Ribs are good bones for shaping into points.

BONE NEEDLE: 

Choose a suitably bone or flake of bone and sharpen to a point.
Burn an eye with a piece of hot wire, or lacking that, scrape
with a knife point or piece of flint. DON'T heat the knife in the
fire.

AXES:

A fire axe is part of the equipment of any boat or plane, but an
axe-head, to be fitted to an improvised handle, is a USEFUL
additional piece of equipment for anyone to carry.

One of about 500-750gr (1-1 1/2 lb) is ideal. Use your knife to
fashion a handle when it is needed.

AXE HANDLE:

Any straight, knot-free hardwood is suitable-ash and hickory are
ideal. In the Tropics the flukes of Buttress tree are excellent:
slightly curved, straight-grained and easy to work.

Cut two notches into the fluke of a buttress, spaced to the
desired length. Hit along the side of fluke close to the cuts. It
will split away at their depth.

FITTING THE HEAD:  

Whittle the handle into shape with one end cut to fit the hole in
the axe-head, cutting a notch in that end.

Make a wedge to fit the notch. With the head in place drive in
the notch then soak the axe the axe in the water overnight to
tighten the head on the shaft.

ALWAYS CHECK AXE-HEADS FOR TIGHTNESS BEFORE USING THEM!

I know I forgot it once OOPSSS! It still is aflying in the sea!

FITTING A STONE AXE-HEAD:

(Not fighting a stone head!) (Ask your local purple punk head to
explain U that one!)

Select a hardwood handle. Tie a band of cord around it about 23cm
(9in) from one end.

Split the end down as far as this band (use your knife and a
wedge or the piece of flint you have made for the axe-head).

Insert the flint and tie the end to secure. This mounting will
split wood but will not be very effective for chopping it.

SHARPENING AN AXE: 

An axe with a blunt edge becomes NO MORE THAN an inefficient
hammer so keep it sharp, it will save energy. A file is best for
getting rid of burrs, and a whetstone for imparting the sharp
edge.  

A file is a one way tool-it works when pushed not pulled. Prop
axe-head between a log and a peg.

ALWAYS try to sharpen inwards from cutting edge to AVOID
producing burrs. Use a file or rougher stone first to remove
rocks and burrs.

Then finish with a smoother stone, using a circular motion. Don't
drag the stone off the cutting edge. Push ON the blade. Turn the
axe over. Repeat the process circling in the opposite direction.


METRIC CONVERSION   DISTANCE

IMPERIAL            METRIC         METRIC         IMPERIAL

1 INCH              2.540 CM       1 CM           0.3927 IN.

1 FOOT              0.3048 M.      I METRE        3.281  FEET

1 YARD              0.9144 M.      1 METRE        1.094  YARD

1 ROD               5.029  M.      1 METRE        0.20   ROD

1 MILE              1.609  KM.          1 KM.     0.6214 MILE

                         CAPACITY

1 PINT = 0.568  LITRE    1 PINT (US)         0.473  LITRE

1 GALLON = 4.546  LITRES 1 QUART (US)        0.946  LITRE

1 BUSHEL =  6.369 LITRES 1 GALLON (US)       3.785  LITRES  

1 FLUID OZ. = 28.41  ML. 1 BARREL OIL        158.99 LITRES

1 QUART = 1.137  LITRE   1 CUP-8FL.OZ        277    ML.

1 LITRE = 1.76   PINT         1 TABLESPOON   14.21  ML.

1 LITRE = 0.220  GAL.         1 TEASPOON          14.21  ML.

1 LITRE   = .88               QUART     

                              WEIGHT

1 OZ. (TROY) =  31.103 GM.    1 GRAM         0.032  OZ. (TROY)

1 OZ.(AVIOR) = 28.350 GM.     1 GRAM         0.035  OZ. (AVIOR)

1 LB.(TROY) =  373.242GM.     1 KILOGRAM     2.679  LB. (TROY)

1 LB.(AVIOR) = 453.592GM.     1 KILOGRAM     2.205  LB.(AVIOR)

1 TON (SHORT) =  0.907 TONNE 1 TONNE = 1.102  TONNE (2000LB.)
(SHORT)

IMPERIAL            AREA                METRIC

1 SQUARE INCH                      6.452 SQUARE CM.

1 SQUARE FOOT                      0.093 SQUARE METRE

1 SQUARE YARD                      0.836 SQUARE METRE

1 ACRE                             0.405 HECTARE

1 SQUARE MILE                      259.0 HECTARE

1 SQUARE MILE                      2.590 SQUARE KM.

1 SQUARE CENTIMETRE                0.155 SQUARE INCH

1 SQUARE METRE                     10.76 SQUARE FEET

1 HECTARE                          1.196 SQUARE YARDS

1 SQUARE KILOMETRE                 0.386 SQUARE MILE

"1 HECTARE                         1 SQUARE HECTOMETRE (1HM.)"
 
                    VOLUME

1 CUBIC INCH                       16.387 CUBIC CENTIMETRES

1 CUBIC FOOT                  28.317 CUBIC DECIMETER (LITRES)

1 CUBIC YARD                       0.765  CUBIC METRE

1 CUBIC CENTIMETRE                 0.061  CUBIC INCH

1 CUBIC DECIMETER                  0.035  CUBIC FOOT
1 CUBIC METRE                 1.308  CUBIC YARD

               TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLE

Conversion F to C = Subtract 32 Then Divide by 1.8  Ex: 80F. 
IS  80-32= 48 ./. 1.8= 26.66

Conversion C to F = Multiply by 1.8 Then Add 32  but for daily
use just do this:
Convert F to C by Subtracting 32 and divide by 2. It in not as
precise but it does the trick.

Ex: 82F-32=50 Divided by 2 = 25C  Ex; 10C+32=42 Multiply by 2 =
84F! It's hot! Boiling point 212F or 100C Freezing point: 32F/ 0C